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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2024 , Vol. 36 >Issue 8: 1269 - 1282

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC240103

Review

Flexible Textile Structure Force Sensor

  • Kun Qi 1, 2 ,
  • Yunling Dai 1, 2 ,
  • Kangkang Ou , 3, * ,
  • Mengting Wang 1 ,
  • Yu Su 1 ,
  • Hongbo Wang 2
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  • 1 Research Institute of Textile and Clothing Industries, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 451191, China
  • 2 School of Textile Science and Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
  • 3 School of Textiles and Fashion, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, China
*e-mail:

Received date: 2024-01-08

  Revised date: 2024-03-26

  Online published: 2024-07-01

Supported by

Youth Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(52303119)

Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China(2021M701450)

Key Scientific Research Project in Universities of Henan Province(23A540001)

Henan Province Science and Technology Research Project(242102220096)

Support project for Young Backbone teachers(2023XQG02)

Strength Improvement Program of Advantageous Disciplines of Zhongyuan University of Technology(SD202221)

Strength Improvement Program of Advantageous Disciplines of Zhongyuan University of Technology(SD202222)

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Abstract

in recent years,the development of material science,micro/nano structure design and processing technology have endowed fibers and textiles with various functions,which promote the wide range of applications in the fields of physiological monitoring,medical diagnosis,tactile perception and human-computer interaction.in order to further promote the application of fiber and textile in the field of wearable devices,this paper reviews the recent research and development status and application of textile structure force sensors recently.Firstly,the textile structure force sensors are classified from fiber,yarn and textile level,and the advantages and disadvantages of different textile structure force sensors are briefly introduced.Secondly,the preparation methods of textile structural force sensors are discussed from preparation techniques,including spinning techniques,coating techniques and textile forming techniques,and the advantages and disadvantages of various preparation methods are discussed.Then,the applications of textile structure force sensors in sports and physical training,health monitoring and human-machine interaction are systematically elaborated.Finally,the future development trend of textile structure force sensors in the field of smart wearables is prospected in the hope of providing a novel way for the research of the next generation of wearable force sensors。

Content

1 Introduction

2 Classification of textile structure force sensor

2.1 Fiber-based force sensor

2.2 Yarn-based force sensor

2.3 Textile-based force sensor

3 Preparation method of textile structure force sensor

3.1 Spinning techniques

3.2 Coating techniques

3.3 Textile forming techniques

4 Application of textile structure force sensor

4.1 Sports and physical training

4.2 Health monitoring

4.3 Human-machine interaction

5 Conclusions and outlook

Key words： textile structure force sensor; spinning techniques; coating techniques; textile forming techniques

Cite this article

Kun Qi , Yunling Dai , Kangkang Ou , Mengting Wang , Yu Su , Hongbo Wang . Flexible Textile Structure Force Sensor[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2024 , 36(8) : 1269 -1282 . DOI: 10.7536/PC240103

1 Introduction

The emergence of flexible wearable electronics has ushered in a new era of user-oriented comfort devices.Compared with traditional rigid devices,flexible wearable electronic devices have many advantages,including softness comparable to biological tissue,compliant contact with arbitrary surfaces,durable biocompatibility,comfortable wearability and ability to withstand various deformations[1⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓~7]。 Over the past few decades,the continuous innovation of material science,device design and processing technology has promoted the rapid development of flexible wearable electronic devices,especially the development of flexible wearable force sensors.It can be attached to human skin and convert external mechanical stimuli into electrical signals(resistance,capacitance,voltage and current),which has great potential in sports data acquisition,health monitoring,human-computer interaction and virtual reality(VR)[8]。 At present,the sensing mechanism of flexible wearable force sensors mainly includes five modes:(1)resistive,that is,under mechanical stimulation,the change of the structure and conductive path of the conductive material causes the change of resistance,which realizes the conversion of force to electrical signal;(2)capacitance,which converts the external mechanical stimulus into the change of parallel plate Capacitance to realize the mechanical response of the sensor;(3)piezoelectric,whose working principle is that the Piezoelectric crystal deforms under mechanical stimulation to produce the separation of electric dipole moment,thus producing the change of electric signal;(4)triboelectric,that is,different current or voltage signal changes are generated by triboelectric and electrostatic induction under different mechanical stimuli[9]; (5)Ionization is a new pressure and tactile sensing method based on ion migration under simulated environmental stimulation.It uses the ultra-capacitive characteristics of the interface electric double layer generated on the electrolyte electron nanoscale interface to achieve ultra-high pressure sensitivity,high anti-interference,high resolution and response to static and dynamic pressure,and has wide application prospects in monitoring human activities and medical care。
the flexible wearable force sensor is composed of a flexible substrate and a conductive functional material.the flexible substrate needs to have sufficient strain capacity and adaptability to human skin to ensure the accuracy of signal collection and monitoring of The flexible wearable force sensor and the comfortable user experience[10⇓~12]。 Fiber materials are lightweight,soft,breathable,comfortable,and easy to integrate with other materials[12,13]。 Therefore,among all kinds of flexible wearable force sensors,textile structure force sensors combined with textile fiber materials and electronic components have attracted much attention.At present,the textile substrates used for textile structural force sensors can be roughly divided into three categories,including fiber film/block substrate,one-dimensional fiber/yarn substrate,and two-dimensional/three-dimensional fabric substrate[14,15]。 In addition,conductive functional materials provide electrical properties for textile structure force sensors,which are the key materials of sensors[16]。 It has been one of the hot research issues how to make the textile structure force sensor have the characteristics of fiber materials(such as flexibility,air permeability and wearability),better mechanical properties and human comfort,and realize the integration of conductive functional materials and sensing functions in fiber materials under the premise of maintaining the excellent electrical properties of textile structure force sensor.Through innovation and optimization of preparation technology,researchers have developed a variety of new flexible textile structure force sensors,which not only have the human comfort and outstanding mechanical properties of fiber materials,but also have excellent electrical properties.At present,the main technologies for preparing force sensors With textile structure can be summarized into three categories,namely,coating technology,spinning technology and fabric forming technology.with the continuous innovation of preparation technology,the application prospects of textile structural force sensors in sports monitoring and training,medical detection and human-computer interaction have been greatly expanded[17⇓~19]。
Based on the classification of textile structure force sensors,the preparation methods,basic principles,advantages and disadvantages of textile structure force sensors are reviewed in this paper.Finally,the application and progress of textile structural force sensors in sports and physical training,health monitoring and human-computer interaction are introduced。

2 Classification of Force Sensors for Textile Structures

textile structure includes fiber,yarn and fabric,and the performance of sensors with different Textile structures is different.fiber is the most basic component in the preparation of textiles,mainly including long fibers and short fibers.Monofilaments or fiber assemblies can be made into continuous yarns by a series of processes such as blending,twisting,and winding.Two-dimensional and three-dimensional textiles can be made by weaving,knitting,sewing,or braiding the yarns together[20]。 In the following,the textile structure force sensor will be introduced from different structural levels。

2.1 Fiber force sensor

fiber force sensors have the forms of Single fiber,fiber membrane,fiber-based aerogel,etc.single fiber is one of the ideal substrates for the preparation of flexible force sensors because of its fine,soft and large specific surface area,which can adapt to various deformations and is easy to be embedded in fabrics[21]。 At present,researchers mainly use dry/wet spinning,melt spinning,template/capillary method or coating technology to construct composite fibers containing conductive functional materials,and assemble them to form single-fiber force sensors.Numerous fibers in the fiber membrane are interlaced with each other to further form a rich porous hierarchical structure,which not only makes the force sensor more easily deformed under mechanical stimulation and has a wider sensing range and higher sensitivity,but also meets the requirements of human body for thermal and moisture comfort.the fiber-base aerogel is prepared by dispersing fibers into a solvent to prepare a fiber dispersion,and freeze-drying the fiber dispersion.There are macropores formed by solvent sublimation and pore walls formed by fiber packing in the interior of fiber-based aerogels.Therefore,compared with traditional aerogels,fiber-based aerogels can endow sensors with excellent characteristics such as low density,easy modification,high porosity,good biocompatibility and flexibility,and excellent compression resilience.Its unique and controllable hierarchical porous structure provides more contact area for conductive pathways,which is conducive to improving the sensitivity of detecting mechanical stimuli[22,23]。

2.2 Yarn Force Sensor

Compared with fiber force sensors,yarn force sensors can not only be better integrated into textile fabrics by weaving,knitting,splicing or weaving,but also have higher mechanical properties,wear resistance and stability,which is conducive to the manufacture of smart textiles suitable for human wear.in addition,the yarn force sensor contains more interlaced fibers and has a porous hierarchical structure,which can realize the contact and separation between different fibers In the yarn under mechanical stimulation,thus effectively broadening the sensing range of the sensor and improving the sensing sensitivity[24]。 the yarn force sensor is mainly prepared By twisting and winding.core-spun yarn is generally made of fiber filaments with good strength and elasticity as core yarn,which is twisted and spun by covering functional fibers,and has the excellent properties of both core yarn and functional fibers.by selecting a suitable skin-core structure,a multifunctional sensing yarn with high strength can be obtained.The different twist structure of the yarn can also affect the force sensing performance[25]。 the sensitivity and working range of the yarn force sensor can also be further improved by the change of the twisting and winding modes of the fibers in the yarn or the different blending modes of different fibers。

2.3 Fabric force sensor

Fabrics are flexible wearable materials formed by interlacing yarns or loops with each other[26]。 Compared with fiber/yarn force sensors,fabric/textile force sensors have large sensing area,high spatial monitoring accuracy and stable sensing structure.At present,there are two main methods to integrate conductive functional materials into fabrics to construct force sensors:(1)directly loading conductive functional materials on existing fabrics/textiles to construct fabric force sensors.the fabric force sensor is prepared by uniformly and firmly loading a conductive functional material on a fabric by mainly using a dipping and coating technology and regulating the structures and properties of the fabric,such as a fiber structure,a porous structure,surface energy,compactness and the like[27,28]。 and(2)sewing or weaving the sensing functional fiber/yarn with good sewing And weaving properties into the fabric force sensor[29,30]。 Compared with the construction of fabric force sensors directly on the fabric,the large-scale integration of fibers/yarns with different functions into the textile system is more conducive to the realization of multi-functional sensing。
in recent years,3D fabrics have become an emerging platform for smart textiles because of their high structural stability and easier integration with industrial production.It is a new type of fabric in which yarns are interwoven in the thickness direction.Compared with traditional two-dimensional fabrics,three-dimensional fabrics have the advantages of complete structure,stable size,high protection and high thermal insulation.the space frame structure of the three-dimensional fabric endows the three-dimensional fabric with larger movement space,and the fibers have enough contact and separation,and the multi-layer fabric structure force sensor designed and prepared by combining the sensing mechanism has higher compression elasticity,so that the sensitivity of the force sensor can be effectively improved[31]。

3 Fabrication Technology of Textile Structure Force Sensor

Researchers have developed a variety of textile structure force sensors by optimizing and improving the process,including spinning technology,coating technology and fabric forming technology。

3.1 Spinning technology

spinning technology has unique advantages in the preparation of conductive composite fibers.At present,the main spinning technologies for the preparation of conductive sensing fibers are melt spinning,preform-hot stretch spinning,wet spinning,microfluidic spinning and electrospinning[32]。 "Preform-hot draw"spinning is a new method migrating from the field of optical fiber manufacturing to the field of textile,which is suitable for the preparation of multi-component fibers.Zhang et al.Made a resistive fiber sensor from a mixture of thermoplastic elastomer and carbon black particles by hot stretching[33]。 The sensor has ultra-high stretchability(400%),high strain sensitivity(≈1960),and excellent durability.However,this technology requires a high working temperature and is only suitable for processing fibers of thermally stable thermoplastic materials,with a narrow range of applications.melt spinning is a spinning technique in which a molten polymer is extruded through a spinneret and solidified during cooling to form a filament.Lim et al.Prepared conductive fibers by embedding silver particles and CNTs as conductive materials into polypropylene fibers based on Melt spinning technology[34]。 However,the conductive fiber prepared by melt-spinning technology has a low conductivity of only 4.1×10−2~7.2×10−2S/cm,which is due to the low threshold of conductive functional filler content,allowing only limited conductive filler incorporation.Solution spinning technology is more adaptable,and fibers with different components and structures can be obtained by different spinning methods,which has a wide range of applications in the development of conductive sensing fibers.This section focuses on the three most commonly used spinning techniques:wet spinning,microfluidic spinning,and electrospinning 。

3.1.1 Wet spinning

Wet spinning is a spinning method in which the polymer is dissolved in a solvent to prepare a spinning solution,and the spinning solution is extruded into a coagulation bath through a spinneret to form fibers[35]。 Since the conductive filler has fewer aggregates in the solution than in the melt,it is highly dispersed in the polymer phase,which is beneficial to the production of uniform highly conductive fibers,which is essential to achieve highly sensitive mechanical sensing.in addition,wet spinning has low cost,can process thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer materials,and can introduce other functional materials at the same time.This makes wet spinning suitable for the fabrication of functional fibers with applications in the field of flexible sensing[36]。 Fig.1A shows the polydopamine-modified scalable conductive MXene/TPU fiber constructed by Wei et al.based on wet spinning and impregnation technology,which can be used to construct fiber-Based TENG with aluminum foil composite.It can integrate fabrics for energy harvesting and human motion sensing by responding to electrical signals in real time at the same time,providing a new method for the development of advanced wearable energy devices,smart fabrics and human-computer interaction[37]。 Pei et al.Successfully constructed a highly conductive silver nanowire-bacterial cellulose(Ag NWs-BC)fiber（1.3×104S/cm）with hierarchical porous structure by continuous wet spinning.The hierarchical porous structure with different pore sizes endows the Ag NWs-BC fiber with good compressibility,which realizes dual-mode capacitance response in contact and non-contact modes[38]。
图1 湿法纺丝技术制备纺织结构力敏传感器：（a）湿法纺丝技术[37]；（b）同轴湿法纺丝技术[39]

Fig. 1 Wet spinning technique for textile structure sensor. (a) Wet spinning technique[37]. (b) Coaxial wet spinning technique[39]. Copyright American Chemical Society, 2020

coaxial wet spinning technology is a new method improved by researchers,which can realize the construction of multi-component fiber structure besides homogeneous fiber.At the same time,the core-shell structure fiber Prepared by this technology can effectively improve the problem of sensing materials exposed to air.As shown in Fig.1b,Zhang et al.prepared a highly conductive MXene@aramid nanofiber(ANF)composite fiber with a skin-core structure by Coaxial wet-spinning technology[39]。 as a skin layer,ANF not only has the function of supporting the skeleton and protecting the core layer,but also isolates MXene from the external environment to avoid oxidation,and can avoid direct contact between MXene to prevent the occurrence of short circuit accidents.MXene@ANF composite fiber has high conductivity(up to 2515 S/m)and high strength(130 MPa),which can be used As a resistive wearable sensor to monitor human action。

3.1.2 Microfluidic spinning

Microfluidic spinning technology(MST)combines the advantages of Microfluidic technology and wet spinning technology.Microfluidic chips are used to replace the traditional spinneret,which can design and prepare complex structure microfibers that are difficult to achieve by conventional spinning technology[40,41]。 It can be understood As a wet spinning technology in which the spinning process is miniaturized and integrated into the microchannel of a microfluidic chip.Compared with the traditional spinning method,this technology not only has the process of physical drawing,but also may involve the process of chemical reaction.MST integrates the whole spinning process in a microfluidic chip of several square centimeters,and the processing technology is simple.the core-shell structure of the fiber is adjusted by adjusting the flow rate of the microfluid,so as to realize the preparation of fibers with different morphologies.as shown in fig.2,Qu et al.Proposed a process for preparing microfibers of different diameters by combining hydrodynamic orientation and MST in polyaxial flow[40]。 The process can use fluid mechanics to arrange and assemble the micro-nano structure,and realize the controllable orientation arrangement of macromolecular chains.the maximum strength of the prepared calcium alginate microfibers can reach 185.1 MPa,and the size of the microfibers is uniform.on the basis of this study,the team further used MST to propose a method for constructing multi-scale disordered porous elastic polyurethane(MPPU)fibers based On the principle of non-solvent-induced phase separation,and combined with impregnation technology to attach GO to MPPU fibers to prepare GO@MPPU conductive sensing functional fibers.the fiber can measure body temperature through resistance changes,monitor human movement and subtle human physiological signals[41]。
图2 微流控纺丝技术[40]制备纺织结构力敏传感器

Fig. 2 Microfluidic spinning technique[40] for textile structure sensor

3.1.3 Electrospinning

Electrospinning is an efficient and versatile technique for the preparation of nanofibers,which uses the action of an electric field to pull the polymer solution to create nanofibers[42]。 Electrospun nanofiber membranes have shown good application value in wearable devices due to their porous structure,easy combination with other functional materials,and unique morphology.As shown in Fig.3A,Liu et al.Prepared a polyvinyl alcohol(PVA)nanofiber spacer by electrospinning,and assembled it with zinc foil,polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene-graphene oxide film(PVDF-HPF-GO)and stainless steel copper mesh loaded with VO2（B）to form a pressure sensor(ZIB-P )[43]。 the sensor can monitor human vital sign signals(pulse,limb movement,etc.)in real time.Sun et al.Designed a new type of polyionic liquid microporous nanofiber membrane(PILNM)as the sensing element of the pressure sensor based on the electrospinning technology,as shown in Figure 3B[44]。 The PILNM membrane with abundant ionic and microporous structure can be regarded as a new polymer dielectric material for capacitance change signal amplification under weak stimulation,showing extremely high sensing stability and suitable for monitoring different human body movements and impulsive vibrations.Lin et al.Developed an all-nanofiber ion pressure sensor by electrospinning technology,which formed an electric double layer at the electrode/electrolyte contact interface,making it have a high sensitivity of 217.5 kPa-1under 0–5 kPa pressure.It has fast response/recovery speed(30 and 60 ms),and can monitor large pressure signals caused by joint bending and weak vibration signals such as cough,respiration and pulse,which shows its application prospect in the field of health monitoring[45]。
图3 静电纺丝技术制备纺织结构力敏传感器：（a，b）静电纺丝技术[43,44]；（c）共轭静电纺丝技术[48]

Fig. 3 Electrospinning technique for textile structure sensor. (a, b) Electrospinning technique[43,44], Copyright Wiley-VCH GmbH, 2022; Copyright American Chemical Society, 2019. (c) Conjugate electrospinning technique[48], Copyright American Chemical Society, 2022

Most of the nanofibers prepared by traditional electrospinning technology present a randomly arranged nanofiber membrane structure,which has weak mechanical strength.When subjected to mechanical stimuli(stretching and bending,etc.),it is vulnerable to wear due to high local stress,and it does not have weaving properties,so it can not be combined with traditional textiles,thus limiting its application in a wider range of fields。
In order to improve the mechanical properties of nanofiber membranes and endow them with weavability,nanofiber yarns were prepared By further processing of nanofibers.the most commonly Used method for the preparation of nanofiber yarns is conjugate electrospinning.by twisting,the gap between fibers is reduced,the friction is increased,the cohesion is improved,the slippage and deformation of a single fiber are effectively reduced,and the strength and toughness of the yarn are significantly improved.At the same time,the high porosity and large deformation space of the twisted yarn structure make it more sensitive to external mechanical stimuli(tensile strain,pressure and bending),which is an ideal structure for the preparation of multifunctional sensors with high sensitivity and wide sensing range.Dai et al.used a one-step conjugate electrospinning process to prepare a piezoelectric sensing fabric with a plain structure based on core-spun Cu/P(VDF-TrFE)nanofiber yarns[46]。 the sensing fabric has good flexibility and sensing performance,and can monitor the movement of the human body by collecting the current generated by the fabric.Based on the conjugate electrospinning technology,Wang et al.Continuously twisted P(VDF-TrFE)nanofibers on the surface of a stretchable conductive yarn into a Fermat spiral structure to construct a triboelectric electronic yarn with structural dynamic stability[47]。 the P(VDFTrFE)nanofiber layer and electrode of the yarn will generate interfacial charge transfer due to cyclic contact/separation during dynamic stretching,thus generating triboelectric signals,which can meet various complex energy harvesting and motion sensing,such as gesture recognition and droplet power generation,and promote the development of textile structural electronic devices.Ling et al.combined the conjugate electrospinning and core spinning processes to propose the electro-assisted core spinning technology and designed and constructed a sheath-core triboelectric nanofiber generator(SC-TENG)yarn,as shown in Figure 3C[48]。 The optimized SC-TENG has high sensitivity with a rapid response time of 5 ms and a minimum detection limit of 0.41 mN。
Electrospinning has the advantages of mature technology,simple equipment,low spinning cost,many kinds of spinnable materials and controllable process,which is an irreplaceable method in the preparation of functional fibers and has been widely used in the preparation of wearable sensors。

3.2 Coating technology

Coating technology is mainly to form a conductive sensing layer on the surface of fibers,yarns or fabrics by impregnation,in-situ polymerization/in-situ growth,spraying/electrostatic spraying and printing,and to construct textile structural force sensors with high sensitivity and high stretchability。

3.2.1 Impregnation technique

the impregnation technique performs the coating by immersing the fiber substrate in a solution containing the conductive functional material.the surface of the fiber substrate immersed in the solution of the conductive functional material is covered with a layer of solution,and the conductive functional material in the solution is deposited on the surface of the fiber in a certain thickness after the solvent is evaporated to form a conductive sensing coating[49⇓~51]。 as shown in Fig.4A,Zhao et al.Used the sodium alginate microfiber prepared by microfluidic technology As the substrate,and formed a GO nanosheet coating shell on the surface of the fiber through the mixed bath of silicone oil and GO flowing in and out of the hydrogel fiber,which showed great application value in motion sensing and gesture indication[52]。 Zheng et al.Prepared conductive MXene/cotton fabric using impregnation technique and assembled it into a resistive pressure sensor[53]。 With the excellent flexibility and three-dimensional porous structure of cotton fabric,the sensor has high sensitivity,wide sensing range and fast response,and realizes the monitoring of human health signals,showing great potential in the next generation of wearable electronic products。
图4 涂层技术制备纺织结构力敏传感器：（a）浸渍技术[52]；（b）原位聚合技术[55]；（c）原位生长技术[54]；（d）印刷技术[59]；（e）静电喷雾技术[65]

Fig. 4 Coating technique for textile structure sensor. (a) Dip coating technique[52], Copyright The Author(s), 2022. (b) In-situ polymerization technique[55]. (c) In-situ growth technique[54]. (d) Printing technique[59], Copyright Wiley-VCH GmbH, 2022. (e) Electrospraying technique[65], Copyright Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2019

impregnation technology has the advantages of simple operation,high utilization rate of coating and no need of special equipment,so it is suitable for large-scale production.Although Impregnation technology can produce textile force sensors with high sensitivity and wide sensing range,there are some problems,such as uneven thickness of the coating,weak interfacial adhesion between the coating and the fiber matrix,and easy to fall off during repeated deformation。

3.2.2 In situ polymerization/in situ growth technique

in-situ polymerization technology is also a common method to prepare force sensors with textile structure,which mainly immerses the fiber matrix In a mixed solution containing monomers,oxidants and dopants,and polymerizes on the fiber surface to form a continuous coating[54]。 Xing et al.Fully contacted the modified silk fiber with the EDOT monomer solution,and then the EDOT was oxidized by CeO2on the surface of the fiber for in-situ polymerization,and finally a large amount of PEDOT grew on the surface of the fiber and formed a conductive sensing coating,as shown in Fig.4B[55]。 the conductive fiber prepared by the method has excellent and stable stress and strain sensing performance,and can monitor the activities of various parts of the human body in real time through the change of resistance signals.Rehman et al.Also polymerized aniline on the surface of wool fabric by in-situ polymerization to form a polyaniline-nanodiamond resistive composite sensor fabric with nanodiamond,which showed high tensile strain sensitivity[56]。
in-situ growth method is a method that uses the pretreated carrier surface As a chemical reaction zone,places it in a reaction environment,and synchronously nucleates,grows,and forms films on the substrate surface through hydrothermal or solvothermal synthesis.This method is easy to operate and easy to scale up,and is the most commonly Used method for the preparation of organic framework films,which is suitable for many materials such as MOFs,COFs,CMPs and HOFs.as shown in Figure 4C,Cao et al.used the in-situ growth technique to modify the zeolitic imidazolate framework(ZIF-8,MOF)on the surface of electrospun poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF)nanofiber,and assembled it with pure PVDF nanofiber membrane and conductive cloth to form a capacitive sensor[54]。 The sensor can realize the monitoring of human movement and vital signs.Compared with the sensor prepared by using the mixed ZIF-8/PVDF nanofiber membrane,the sensitivity（5.94 kPa-1）is significantly improved by 300%,and the agglomeration of ZIF-8 is effectively prevented.Fan et al.Used the in-situ growth technique to grow conductive nickel MOF nanowire arrays(Ni-CAT@CC)on carbon cloth,and assembled Ni-CAT@CC into a resistive sensor,which can monitor human movement,such as elbow bending,knee bending and wrist bending[57]。
Compared with the impregnation technology,the in-situ polymerization/in-situ growth technology makes the bonding force between the conductive material and the fiber material stronger,which can improve the durability of the textile structure force sensor,and the conductive coating prepared by the in-situ polymerization/in-situ growth technology is more uniform,which is conducive to improving the sensitivity and stability of the sensor。

3.2.3 Printing technology

printing technology can achieve non-full coverage of patterned functional coatings At specific locations on textile structural matrix materials.at present,screen printing and inkjet printing are commonly used in the production process of printed electronic products[58⇓⇓⇓~62]。 screen printing technology is a method in which the printing paste is printed on the textile through the screen stencil to give its graphics.Compared with other printing technologies,screen printing can quickly complete large-scale production and graphical customization By selecting screens with specific patterns,which has the advantages of fast printing speed,wide range of substrates and stable quality.Fig.4D shows a resistive sensing textile prepared by Cao et al.by depositing an aqueous conductive ink made of silver and a transparent binder on the surface of the textile using a screen printing technique[59]。 The electronic textile has high strain sensitivity and wide sensing range,and can realize human motion monitoring。
Although screen printing technology has shown great potential in the preparation of smart clothing and smart textiles,it still has some shortcomings,such as screen printing technology can only be printed on planar structural substrates,and the resolution of sensors prepared is limited。

3.2.4 Spray coating/electrostatic spraying technique

Spraying technology uses high-speed airflow and electrostatic repulsion to disperse the solution/liquid into uniform micro/nano droplets,and the conductive functional material is uniformly deposited on the surface of the textile substrate after the solvent evaporates to form a sensing coating[63,64]。 Zhao et al.Prepared TPU fibers by electrospinning technology,and at the same time,the Ag NWs dispersion was sprayed out by a pressurized nozzle,and after the solvent was evaporated,the Ag NWs were deposited on the surface of the TPU fibers to assemble into non-woven conductive textiles[64]。 The conductive textile has a high conductivity of 5114 S/cm and excellent tensile sensing properties。
Electrostatic spraying technology is a method in which the solution is refined into tiny droplets under the action of a high-voltage electric field and deposited on the surface of the fiber by the action of the electric field.As shown in Fig.4E,Liu et al.Prepared a nanofiber electrode(NEE)by electrospinning and electrospray simultaneously[65]。 NEE can form seamless contact with human epidermis and can monitor finger bending and ECG signals through resistance changes.Li et al.Designed an embedded multilevel nanostructured resistive pressure sensor composed of Ag NWs,graphene,and polyamide nanofibers using electrospinning and electrospray technology,and its hierarchical structure can achieve pressure monitoring with high sensitivity（134 kPa-1）and wide range(3.7 Pa–75 kPa )[66]。 Compared with other coating methods,the spraying/electrostatic spraying technology has a higher production speed and a wide range of material choices,and the conductive material can be uniformly embedded into the fiber matrix through co-assembly.Less conductive material can also obtain an efficient and stable conductive sensing network,but it may produce a large number of unnecessary droplets,resulting in material waste。

3.3 Fabric Forming Technology

Textile structural force sensors have a variety of structures,among which fiber/yarn force sensors mainly rely on the deformation of the surface and internal conductive network of the fiber/yarn during the stretching process to cause changes in electrical signals,so the sensing range and sensitivity are limited.different from the fiber/yarn force sensor,the resistance change of the fabric structure force sensor is mainly composed of the resistance change of the conductive layer on the yarn surface and the contact resistance change between yarns.Different fabric structures will cause Different contact resistance changes,thus changing its sensing performance.At present,the commonly used fabric forming technologies for preparing fabric force sensors include knitting technology,weaving technology and three-dimensional weaving technology。
the most commonly used substrate for textile structural force sensors is woven fabric,which is composed of yarns interwoven with each other in orthogonal directions and has a compact and stable structure,which is beneficial for The sensor to achieve excellent durability.As shown in fig.5A,Xiao et al.Fabricated a single-layer honeycomb capacitive fabric sensor with three-dimensional effect by weaving technology[67]。 Thanks to the unique advantages of honeycomb fabric,such as multi-dimensional and multi-scale structure,high flexibility and elasticity,low cost and high skin-friendly,it can be used as a flexible pressure sensor to monitor human motion.fabric-based sensors have advantages such as a larger sensing area and an ideal sensing array.Therefore,fabric-based sensors have been widely used for spatial mapping and localization。
图5 编织技术制备纺织结构力敏传感器：（a）机织技术[67]；（b）针织技术[68]；（c）三维编织技术[70]

Fig. 5 Braided technique for textile structure sensor. (a) Weaving technique[67]. (b) Knitting technique[68], Copyright MDPI, 2022. (c) Three-dimensional braiding technique[70], Copyright The Author(s), 2020

knitted structure has good tensile characteristics and high tensile recovery,which is an ideal choice for the design of resistive flexible strain sensor.knitted structure resistance strain sensor mainly uses the contact and separation between conductive yarns in the Knitted loop structure to achieve its sensing function.when stretched,the conductive parts of the interleaved loop come into contact and begin to slide relative to each other,which results in a change in the resistance of the sensor.That is to say,when the fabric is stretched,the contact points within the yarn are pulled apart,resulting in an increase in the resistance of the sensor,and when the fabric returns to its initial state,the contact points between the yarns are re-established,resulting in a decrease in the resistance of the sensor,thus achieving a highly sensitive sensing function.as shown in Fig.5B,Cong et al.used nylon/spandex composite yarn and silver-plated nylon yarn As raw materials to prepare a resistance-type Knitted fabric strain sensor by plain knitting process[68]。 Similarly,Bozali et al.Also fabricated a resistive strain sensor with a 1×1 rib structure based on the weft knitting process[69]。 By changing the braiding density,a low hysteresis sensor with a working range of up to 40%and a sensitivity of up to 1.19 is obtained.the main advantage of the knitted sensor is that it can be mass-produced at low cost with existing textile equipment and yarns,while having exactly the same appearance as traditional textiles。
textile structural force sensors based on one-dimensional filament/yarn or two-dimensional fabric have been studied extensively,achieving excellent flexibility and compatibility.However,Textile structured force sensitive sensors with high sensitivity,durable performance,ideal comfort and industrial manufacturing are still to be explored.three-dimensional fabric can improve the stability of the structure,enrich the structure design,and the preparation method is easy to combine with the actual production,which has become a new platform for intelligent textiles.As shown in Figure 5C,Dong et al.Designed a nano-tribo-generator(3DB-TENG)with high flexibility,shape adaptability,structural integrity,recyclability and excellent mechanical stability based on Three-dimensional braiding technology(3DB)[70]。 Due to the spatial column structure formed between the outer braided yarn and the inner axial yarn,the 3DB-TENG has high-pressure retraction elasticity,which significantly improves the pressure sensitivity and the collection ability of vibration energy.based on 3DB-TENG,smart shoes and identity recognition carpet are developed,which shows its broad application prospects in future identity authentication,access control system,gait analysis and so on.the three-dimensional spacer fabric is composed of two outer layers,and the inner and outer layers are connected and supported by thin monofilaments to form a spacer structure.the structure can create a three-dimensional space without significantly increasing the weight of the fabric,and has good air permeability and wearing comfort,which is an ideal material for wearable force sensors.Yu et al.Designed a five-layer weft knitted fabric capacitive sensor Based on a spacer structure[71]。 the two outermost layers of cotton fabric act as an insulating layer between the skin and the sensor.the two inner layers are separated by a compressible spacer layer(dielectric layer)to form parallel plates(electrodes),and capacitive sensors with different sensing properties are prepared by changing the spacer yarn in the spacer layer.the sensor can be continuously produced on the traditional two-bed weft knitting machine,which provides a new strategy for the continuous preparation of force sensors for textile structures。

4 Application of Force Sensor in Textile Structure

4.1 Sports and Physical Training

sports is an indispensable part of human life.accurate movements and good habits can effectively avoid sports injuries.in competitive sports training,the accuracy of athletes'technical movements has a vital impact on the results of the competition.Therefore,the monitoring and evaluation of the process of sports and physical training is of great significance for avoiding sports injuries and guiding the training of athletes.However,in the free state,the Accurate exercise parameters can not be obtained because the body information of athletes can not be monitored in real time.Therefore,there is an urgent need to develop textile structure force sensors with comfortable wear,high sensitivity and real-time monitoring of athletes'state[72]。 Wang et al.Designed a high-stretch yarn TENG using silver-plated nylon yarn and silicone rubber elastomer to achieve rapid response to various external mechanical stimuli,as shown in Fig.6a[73]。 Based on the excellent sensing performance of TENG,it has been applied in automatic counting rope skipping,self-powered gesture recognition gloves and real-time golf scoring system.Zhang et al.Fabricated a wearable graphene-coated fiber sensor,which achieved fast response to human action[72]。 Attaching it to human joints can realize the monitoring of key movements in basketball and football,which shows its potential application in sports and sports training.The PVA/CS/Ag NWs and TPU nanofiber membranes prepared by electrospinning and spray technology by Wu et al.Were successfully assembled into an electronic skin based on triboelectric nanogenerator,achieving excellent pressure sensitivity up to 0.3086 V·kPa-1in a wide detection range of 6.65–19.21 kPa,which can effectively respond to different volleyball receiving speeds[74]。 A 2×3 electronic skin array was further designed to test the volleyball receiving induction in different hitting postures,and the volleyball receiving statistical analysis system was used to carry out motion induction,position monitoring and distribution statistics,so as to achieve the purpose of assisting athletes in training,as shown in Figure 6B。
图6 纺织结构力敏传感器的应用：（a）跳绳训练[73]；（b）排球训练[74]；（c）脉搏和心跳监测[79]；（d）心电信号和肌电信号监测[81]；（e）手势-语音翻译系统[84]；（f）无线控制系统[64]

Fig. 6 Application of textile structure sensor. (a) Jump rope training[73], Copyright Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2018. (b) Volleyball training[74], Copyright American Chemical Society, 2021. (c) Pulse and heartbeat monitoring[79], Copyright The Authors, 2020. (d) ECG and EMG monitoring[81], Copyright Wiley‐VCH GmbH, 2022. (e) Gesture-to-speech translation system[84]. (f) Wireless control system[64], Copyright American Chemical Society, 2021

4.2 Health monitoring

with The increase of population and medical needs,personalized health monitoring has gradually become the focus of attention because of its accuracy and timeliness.the physiological activities of human body,such as respiration,heartbeat,pulse and joint movement,will produce pressure/strain signals With different amplitudes[75,76]。 Sensors attached to different parts of the body can monitor these pressure/strain signals in real time and continuously,which is essential for the early detection and diagnosis of human diseases。
Incorrect sitting posture during prolonged sitting is one of the common occupational causes of musculoskeletal disorders of the neck,shoulders,waist,and elbows.Therefore,developing a wearable flexible electronic device for attitude monitoring and correction is a promising research direction[77]。 Pu et al.Coated Ag NW/WPU layers and MXene layers alternately and tightly on hydrophilic polyurethane fibers to construct fiber strain sensors,which were embedded in corsets and gloves to realize real-time monitoring of upper body posture and gestures.Through the human posture monitoring,analysis and correction system,the information is fed back to the individual in time to remind the user to correct the bad posture and help the office staff to make adjustments,thus reducing the risk of occupational musculoskeletal diseases[78]。
Sleep is one of the important needs of human life.Inadequate quality or quantity of sleep can lead to depression,anxiety,memory problems,and other health problems.Due to the softness of smart textiles,the research on sleep monitoring based on smart textiles has attracted much attention.Adepu et al.Used dip-coating technique to deposit Ti3C2Txand NiSe2on cotton cloth to fabricate a pressure sensor based on Ti3C2Tx/NiSe2/cotton cloth[75]。 This sensor can be used to continuously monitor sleep posture(right,left,and flat lying).By placing the sensor inside the mask,the sleep tracking device can be used to continuously monitor sleep breathing disorders(such as sleep apnea),which shows the potential application value of textile force sensor in personal health diagnosis.Yang et al.Reported a triboelectric all-fabric sensor array with high pressure sensitivity and comfort,as shown in Figure 6C[79]。 It can be sewn on different parts of clothing to simultaneously monitor arterial pulse waves and respiratory signals,and provide long-term non-invasive assessment of sleep apnea syndrome,providing guidance for quantitative analysis of some chronic diseases。
Arterial pulse can directly reflect various information,including human exercise intensity and physiological health.For example,the frequency and amplitude of pulses increase when a person moves;Stiffening of the blood vessels causes the pulse to beat faster and the reflected wave to return earlier.Qi et al.Fabricated CNTs-doped nanofiber core-spun yarns by conjugate electrospinning and woven them into multimodal mechanical sensors[76]。 the sensor can be attached to the wrist to monitor the pulse and judge the state of the human body(calm state and strenuous exercise state)by analyzing the pulse signal。
Electrocardiogram can display the electrical signals of the heart and provide information for predicting heart disease.Lu et al.Fabricated flexible,ultralight and highly conductive graphite nanosheet/polyamide 66 nanofiber composite multifunctional sensor by electrospinning process[80]。 the impedance of the sensor is small,and the ECG signal of the human body can be recorded when the sensor is attached to the chest,showing an ECG signal curve similar to that of a commercial electrode.Zhang et al.prepared a polyacrylonitrile/polyurethane/silver nanowire multilayer composite membrane with oriented sweat transport by electrospinning and vacuum filtration,as shown in Fig.6d[81]。 the researchers applied the composite membrane to the measured body electromyography(EMG)and electrocardiogram(ECG)signals,which can effectively prevent the accumulation of sweat at the skin/electrode interface and show reliable and stable EMG/ECG signal monitoring,providing a method for the development of perspirant epidermal electronic skin suitable for long-term electrophysiological signal monitoring。

4.3 Human-computer interaction

human-computer interaction makes human beings live in harmony with the digital world and cooperate effectively.As an important part of human-computer interaction,textile structural force sensor provides accurate and real-time external information for human-computer interaction[82]。 Zhang et al.Reported gloves and armbands composed of high-tensile fiber strain sensors and used to monitor finger,wrist,elbow,and shoulder movements[83]。 the researchers collected human arm/gesture data through gloves and armbands and trained a neural network to recognize gestures.In the dynamic arm gesture experiment,the recognition of traffic police gesture is realized.Xu et al.Produced triboelectric fabric(AS-TEF)with three-dimensional arch structure by weft inlay stitch method through computerized flat knitting machine[84]。 the fabric can realize the self-powered strain sensing function,and the smart glove made by integrating with the circuit can be used in the gesture-speech translation system,as shown in Figure 6e。
Interactive control is another important application of HCI and involves taking input signals from the user and converting them into instructions to allow the machine to perform specific actions.Choi et al.Prepared conductive microfibers by coating and pressure-assisted imprinting technique[85]。 the fiber can be used as a strain sensor to accurately discriminate between different mechanical stimuli.Two sensors are integrated into the thumb and index finger respectively to prepare smart gloves,which can recognize different actions.the glove can effectively control the VR shooting game interface,and realize the actions of loading the bullet,enlarging the target and shooting the target.Zhou et al.Designed a novel all-fabric resistive pressure sensor with silver paste screen-printed interdigitated fabric electrodes on the bottom and Ag NWs coated cotton fabric on the top[82]。 the integration of the sensor array into a microcontroller unit realizes the data exchange between the computer and the sensor,and completes the activities of playing the piano and playing computer games.Zhao et al.Prepared TPU nanofibers in situ by electrospinning technology,and at the same time,the Ag NWs dispersion was sprayed out by a pressurized nozzle,and the Ag NWs were deposited on the surface of TPU nanofibers after solvent evaporation to form non-woven conductive textiles[64]。 As shown in Figure 6 f,a four-channel sensing system based on non-woven conductive textiles is created,which can wirelessly control the movement of four-wheeled vehicles through hand movements,demonstrating its application value in interactive control of intelligent human-computer interface。

5 Conclusion and prospect

in this paper,the force sensors for textile structures are reviewed and analyzed,the classification of force sensors for textile structures(fiber force sensor,yarn force sensor,fabric force sensor)and their performance characteristics are introduced,and the main preparation methods of force sensors for textiles at present are introduced.Including spinning technology,coating technology and fabric forming technology,the advantages and disadvantages of various methods are discussed in detail,and the application potential of textile structural force sensors in sports and physical training,health monitoring and human-computer interaction is summarized and evaluated。
Currently,sensors based on textile structures are one of the most promising wearable electronics,which rely on conductive fibers or yarns for electrical conduction,signal transmission,and information exchange.textile structural sensors can be finely designed in structure by traditional preparation processes,using twist to transform fibers into yarns with graded coil structure,which can be further made into fabrics or integrated into clothing by weaving,knitting and knitting technologies to achieve true wearability.Although significant progress has been made in preparation methods,performance optimization and applications of textile structure sensors,there is still much research to be done。
(1)fiber manufacturing technology:this paper introduces the commonly used Fiber preparation methods,which have their own defects.For example,the mechanical properties of functional fibers prepared by coating method are poor,and the interfacial bonding is weak.With This in mind,spinning can be an ideal production method.However,the poor dispersion of conductive materials in polymers makes it difficult to construct fine structures in fibers,which makes it difficult to improve the performance of sensors.Emerging spinning technologies such as microfluidics and hot drawing can be used as an important supplement to traditional processes,enriching the structure and function of devices,especially in device miniaturization and precision manufacturing。
(2)multi-function integration:It is difficult for a sensor with a single working mode to meet the requirements of multiple test parameters in a complex environment.the multimode sensor can detect multiple stimuli at the same time,and can realize the detection of subtle stimuli and the spatial distribution of multiple monitoring parameters.However,when integrated into a system,how to avoid mutual interference between sensors is still a challenge.Therefore,on the premise of ensuring the accuracy and stability of the output signal,the development of Multi-parameter measurement should be strengthened.Multifunctional sensors integrate a variety of parameters and functions,and have broad application prospects in the field of human-computer interaction and wearable devices。

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