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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2024 , Vol. 36 >Issue 9: 1380 - 1391

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC240125

Review

Construction of Biomass-Based Sensors and Their Application in Human Health Monitoring

  • Huiyuan Liang 1 ,
  • Jianzhong Ma , 1, * ,
  • Jian Yang 2 ,
  • Wen Li 1 ,
  • Wenbo Zhang , 1, *
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  • 1 College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering (College of Flexible Electronics), Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
  • 2 Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
*e-mail: (Jianzhong Ma);
(Wenbo Zhang)

Received date: 2024-01-29

  Revised date: 2024-06-27

  Online published: 2024-08-30

Supported by

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52073164)

National Natural Science Foundation of China(21908141)

Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi(2024JC-YBMS-122)

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Abstract

with the continuous development of flexible electronic devices in recent years,flexible wearable sensors show great potential for development in the fields of human health monitoring,electronic skin,and intelligent machines.biomass materials,as a kind of renewable resource derived from living organisms with excellent characteristics such as inexpensive,green and,eco-friendly,skin-friendly and breathable,and good biocompatibility,have been heavily studied as the matrix of wearable,flexible sensors.biomass-based sensors can be ideal for use in the field of human health monitoring because they combine the excellent properties of biomass materials with sensing elements.This paper first reviews the structure,composition and working principle of common flexible sensors(strain,pressure,temperature,biological).and then,the characteristics of different biomass-based sensors and their applications are described in detail.the biomass materials involved mainly include collagen,gelatine,cellulose,chitosan,sodium alginate,and silk protein.in addition,the applications of biomass-based sensors in human health monitoring(including physical signals,chemical signals,bioelectrical signals and thermal signals monitoring)are summarised.Finally,the challenges and future directions of biomass-based sensors and their applications in the field of human health monitoring are pointed out in light of the current status of the applications they are currently facing。

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Classification and principles of flexible sensors

2.1 Flexible strain sensors

2.2 Flexible pressure sensors

2.3 Flexible temperature sensors

2.4 Flexible biosensors

3 Biomass-based flexible sensor

3.1 Collagen-based sensor

3.2 Gelatin-based sensor

3.3 Sodium alginate-based sensor

3.4 Cellulose-based sensor

3.5 Chitosan-based sensor

3.6 Silk protein-based sensor

4 Application of biomass-based sensors in human health monitoring

4.1 Physical signal monitoring

4.2 Chemical signal monitoring

4.3 Bioelectrical signal monitoring

4.4 Thermal signal monitoring

5 Conclusion and outlook

Key words： flexible sensor; biomass-based sensors; health monitoring; wearable

Cite this article

Huiyuan Liang , Jianzhong Ma , Jian Yang , Wen Li , Wenbo Zhang . Construction of Biomass-Based Sensors and Their Application in Human Health Monitoring[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2024 , 36(9) : 1380 -1391 . DOI: 10.7536/PC240125

1 Introduction

With the enhancement of people's awareness of environmental protection and health,some synthetic polymer materials that are not environmentally friendly are gradually replaced by biomass materials that are environmentally friendly[1]。 Commonly used biomass materials include cellulose,chitosan,alginate,collagen,starch,protein,agar,etc[2]。 Because of its unique spatial conformation and chemical composition,as well as many advantages such as easy functionalization,biocompatibility,biodegradability and low carbon emissions,it plays an indispensable role in the fields of environment,food packaging,energy,biomedicine and aerospace[3][4]。 biomass-based biosensor is a kind of biosensor based on biomass materials.Early biomass-based biosensors are mainly used to selectively identify and detect chemical substances using biomass materials[5]。 With the continuous development of bioscience and human-computer interaction technology,biomass-based sensors have been continuously improved and innovated,and gradually applied to health monitoring,smart home,biomedicine and other fields[6]。
As one of the application fields of Flexible sensors,human health monitoring can monitor and record human physiological indicators and health status in real time or regularly.flexible sensors for health monitoring are popular in the fields of personal smart medicine and telemedicine,and accurate and long-term monitoring of human physiological conditions will also provide more opportunities for disease diagnosis and treatment[7]。
based on this,the working principles of different types of flexible sensors are summarized,and the composition,characteristics and application fields of different biomass-based sensors are introduced.Secondly,the application of biomass-based sensors in human health monitoring is summarized and analyzed,and the future research directions of biomass-based sensors and human health monitoring are pointed out。

2 Classification and Principle of Flexible Sensor

A flexible sensor is a sensor that can be bent,stretched,or twisted to effectively detect various stimuli associated with a specific environment or biological species.When subjected to external environmental stimuli such as mechanical,temperature,or humidity,the flexible sensor can convert the sensed stimuli into detectable electrical signals[8][9]。 According to the different ways of use,it can be roughly divided into flexible strain sensor,flexible pressure sensor,flexible temperature sensor,flexible biosensor and so on[10]。

2.1 Flexible strain transducer

the working principle of the flexible strain sensor is to convert the mechanical deformation into an electrical signal,and its mechanism is mainly due to the geometric changes(length and cross-sectional area)of the material itself,the inherent resistance response,the disconnection mechanism between conductive particles,and the tunneling effect[11]。 Common flexible strain sensors can be divided into resistive,capacitive and piezoelectric types according to their sensing mechanisms[12]。 the sensing mechanism of the resistive strain sensor is that when the piezoresistive material is deformed under the action of an external force,the change of the internal microstructure of the conductive material can be recorded as a resistance change and smoothly converted into other operable signals through an external circuit[13]。 the capacitive strain sensor consists of a pair of stretchable electrodes and a layer of dielectric material,which relies on the dielectric material and the geometry change between the two electrodes to convert the strain into a changing capacitance signal[14]。 the main sensing mechanism of piezoelectric strain sensor is piezoelectric effect,that is,when the pressure-sensitive material is deformed,positive and negative charges with opposite polarities appear on the two opposite surfaces of the material,thus forming a corresponding potential difference[15]。
At present,the flexible strain sensor still needs to be improved in the aspects of substrate thermodynamic stability,mechanical-electric conversion mechanism,wearing comfort,sensitivity,linearity,reliability and durability,so it is necessary to reasonably select the composite structure and design to regulate the interaction between functional materials and polymers in order to achieve higher performance strain sensing[16][17]。

2.2 Flexible pressure transducer

When the flexible pressure sensor is subjected to an external force,it can convert the pressure signal into electrical signals such as resistance,current or capacitance,and reflect the external force through the change of the electrical signals[18]。 According to the different sensing mechanisms,flexible pressure sensors can be divided into four types:capacitive,piezoresistive,piezoelectric and triboelectric[19]。 Under the action of pressure,the change of the internal structure and dielectric constant of the capacitive pressure sensor will affect the capacitance value,and the change of capacitance will respond to the applied pressure[20]。 the change of the structure of the piezoresistive pressure sensor,the contact resistance between electrodes or the conductive path will cause the change of the resistance,which will be converted into the corresponding electrical signal.in addition,the sensing mechanism of Piezoelectric pressure sensors is mainly based on the piezoelectric effect.piezoelectric materials will be polarized under pressure,thus generating free charges on the surface of the electrode.triboelectric pressure sensor is based on the coupling effect of triboelectric and electrostatic induction.When two layers of materials with different triboelectric characteristics are In contact,different charges will accumulate on the surface,and this"electrogenic process"can convert pressure into electrical signals for output[21]。
With the continuous development of artificial intelligence,pressure sensors will be more used in ultra-precision fields(such as ultra-small pressure detection).This requires the pressure sensor to have ultra-high sensitivity,wide detection range,low power consumption and multi-function。

2.3 Flexible temperature sensor

flexible temperature sensors are capable of detecting and transmitting temperature signals from multiple sources such as human body,environment,and electronic devices,and have great potential for application in activity monitoring,environmental sensing,and accident warning.However,it is still a difficult task to manufacture flexible temperature sensors with excellent sensing performance due to the complex process of building flexible sensing elements with high sensitivity[22]。 the flexible temperature sensor is usually composed of a temperature-sensitive material and a flexible substrate.Its sensing mechanism is that when the temperature changes,the temperature-sensitive material will produce a corresponding resistance change,which can be measured and converted into an electrical signal,so as to monitor the temperature[23][22]。
temperature sensors offer new possibilities for personal health management.High sensitivity,excellent mechanical properties,environmental stability and wide detection range are also essential advantages of flexible Temperature sensors[24]。 In practical applications,different use scenarios may have different requirements for temperature sensing technology,for example,the field of medical devices requires higher temperature measurement accuracy and stability,while the field of wearable devices pays more attention to the softness and comfort of sensors。

2.4 Flexible biosensor

Biomarker is one of the indicators reflecting the health status of organisms.Through the analysis of biomarkers(such as proteins,nucleic acids,metabolites,etc.),it can help doctors to make early diagnosis of diseases,evaluate the therapeutic effect and judge the prognosis of diseases[25][26]。 the flexible biosensor is mainly composed of a molecular recognition element and a transducer.Its sensing mechanism is that when the molecular recognition element(such as enzymes,cells,microorganisms)detects the change of biological signals,it can be converted into readable electrical signals by the transducer and transmitted to the monitoring device[27]。
Flexible biosensors also need to be improved in terms of biocompatibility of materials,miniaturization and integration of devices,accuracy and anti-interference of equipment,continuity of signal transmission and self-driven energy supply[28]。

3 Biomass-based flexible sensor

biomass materials are often used as flexible sensor substrate materials because of their high softness,good biocompatibility,renewability,degradability and other characteristics.Commonly used biomass-based materials include collagen,gelatin,sodium alginate,chitosan,cellulose,silk fibroin and so on.the combination of biomass materials with unique structure and properties and sensing technology can realize the sensing and monitoring of the environment,objects and organisms[29]。

3.1 Collagen-based sensor

Collagen is a cylindrical protein composed of three polypeptide chains(Fig.1),which can be isolated and purified from animal tissues by enzymatic,salt,or acid methods[30]。 Compared with non-biomass materials,collagen is easily absorbed by organisms and provides nutrition and curative effect for wounds[31]。 As the most abundant structural protein in vivo,collagen has the characteristics of cell signal recognition,adjustable mechanical properties and good biodegradability,so it can be used to construct biomass-based sensors with excellent performance[32]。
图1 胶原蛋白分子结构及其制备示意图

Fig. 1 Molecular structure of collagen and schematic diagram of its preparation

collagen-based materials have some defects,such as poor thermal stability,poor water resistance,low mechanical strength and easy enzymolysis,so it is necessary to use other materials to make up for these defects,so as to construct collagen-based sensors with different properties.While improving its original structure and performance defects,it endows collagen-based sensors with excellent biological characteristics,and applies them to motion monitoring,biosensing,electrochemical sensing,odor detection and other fields[33][33][34][35][36]。 Wang et al.Prepared a substrate layer and a piezoelectric layer by doping different layers of collagen polymer with polyaniline-acidified multi-walled carbon nanotube composites,and assembled them into a novel multifunctional sensor with a multi-layer three-dimensional network structure[37]。 The cross electrodes in the base layer and the multi-layer three-dimensional structure in the piezoelectric layer can provide the sensor with extremely high humidity and piezoelectric sensing capability,so the sensor can be widely used in health monitoring,biomedicine and other fields.In addition,the ideal flexible sensor needs to have multi-environment applicability(such as warm,cold,and even underwater conditions).Gu et al.Constructed a collagen-based multifunctional self-healing conductive hydrogel sensor using collagen,dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose,acrylic acid,AlCl3,and propylene glycol[33]。 Due to the internal dynamic reversible Schiff base covalent crosslinking,metal coordination,and molecular entanglement and hydrogen bonding between macromolecules,the hydrogel sensor shows stable strain sensing capability,and can accurately monitor human motion signals in cold environments or after long-term placement。

3.2 Gelatin-based transducer

Gelatin is a moderately heat-denatured product of collagen in an acidic or alkaline environment and has an amino acid structure similar to collagen(Fig.2)[38]。 in addition to the biological functions of collagen,it also has good film-forming,gelling,emulsifying properties,solubility and chemical reactivity superior to collagen,so it shows good application potential In the field of sensors[39]。
图2 明胶分子结构及其制备示意图

Fig. 2 Molecular structure of gelatine and schematic diagram of its preparation

gelatin-based sensors can usually be prepared by changing the physical and chemical properties of gelatin or regulating the interaction between gelatin and cells.gelatin as a matrix material often has the defects of poor mechanical properties,easy brittle fracture and too fast degradation,so it needs to be solved by modifying gelatin or adding inorganic materials and synthetic polymer materials into gelatin matrix[40]。 For example,Liu et al.Incorporated poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonic acid)into a gelatin network,and prepared a multimodal gelatin-based hydrogel sensor with excellent performance through a thermal enhancement strategy,which can not only be used to monitor body temperature or ambient temperature,but also monitor human vital signs and mobility under low temperature conditions,thus ensuring human life safety[41]。 Furthermore,in order to solve the challenges of mechanical strength and conductivity of pure natural polymer-based sensors,Qin et al.Used gelatin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose oxide as raw materials to synthesize double-network hydrogels by dynamic Schiff base bonding,and further enhanced the mechanical properties and conductivity of hydrogels by Hofmeister effect between gelatin and salt[42]。 the prepared hydrogel sensor can accurately monitor the movement of multiple joints of the human body,so it shows great application potential in health monitoring and information recording。
Gelatin-based sensors usually have good biocompatibility,biodegradability,sensing properties,antibacterial properties and controllable mechanical properties.At present,they have been widely used in wound healing dressings,soft robots,ionic skin and multi-functional flexible sensors[43][38][44][45][43][36][46,47]。

3.3 Alginate-based sensor

Sodium alginate is a natural polysaccharide composed ofβ-D-mannuronic acid andα-L-guluronic acid linked by(1-4)bonds,which has attracted much attention because of its good biocompatibility and biodegradability,and has a wide range of applications in biology,medicine,food and chemistry[48][49]。
Sodium alginate-based sensors usually have some defects,such as poor stability,weak mechanical properties,low porosity and fragility,which limit their application in the sensing field[50][51]。 However,due to the large number of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups in sodium alginate(Figure 3),the hydrophilicity of the sensing material is significantly improved.But also that sodium alginate base material can be modified by a physical or chemical method to improve different property(swelling,degradation,adhesion,mechanical property and the like)of the sodium alginate based material,so that the sodium alginate based sensor realize multi-function and intellectualization while retaining the original advantages[52][53]。
图3 海藻酸钠分子结构及其制备流程

Fig. 3 Molecular structure of sodium alginate and its preparation process

sodium alginate-based flexible sensor is easily disturbed by external factors in the use process,which shortens its service life.Therefore,Zhao et al.Used biomass such as Sodium alginate,chitosan and tannic acid as raw materials to construct a hydrogel three-dimensional network through dynamic borate ester bonds and hydrogen bonds to prepare a multifunctional self-healing hydrogel sensor[50]。 the sensor has good stretchability,self-healing and stable sensing performance,and can be used not only As a strain sensor to monitor human motion,but also as an electronic skin or a touch screen pen to write.as a natural polyelectrolyte,sodium alginate can be used to construct ion transport networks and realize The trade-off between mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of sensors.Huang et al.Introduced polysaccharide electrolyte sodium alginate into polyvinyl alcohol,and skillfully constructed ion transport network and energy dissipation network by physical freeze-thaw method[54]。 Therefore,the double-network composite eutectic gel with a variety of physical effects is prepared by salting-out and solvent replacement methods,and the obtained composite gel sensor shows excellent mechanical properties,frost resistance and stability,and can be used for sensitive and accurate monitoring of human joint movement。
At present,the reported sodium alginate-based sensors have high specific surface area,good conductivity,stability and adsorption properties,and have been used to prepare aerogels,hydrogels,carrier materials,etc.,and have also been widely used in the fields of friction nanogenerators,flexible supercapacitors,glucose detection,artificial intelligence,etc[55][56][57][58][59][60][61]。

3.4 Cellulose-based sensor

Cellulose,as the most widely distributed and abundant renewable biomass raw material in nature,is a highly aggregated isomer[62]。 As shown in Fig.4,cellulose is composed of a linear polysaccharide material constructed fromβ(1–4)-linked d-glucose units,which has excellent mechanical strength,biodegradability,and renewability[63]。 The presence of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces makes cellulose or cellulose derivatives have hydrophilic surfaces,so they can be combined with other materials to prepare sensing materials through hydrogen bonds,covalent bonds or ionic interactions[64]。 the development of cellulose in the field of sensors can not only reduce the burden of current environmental problems,but also be friendly and compatible with human skin,making sensing materials more environmentally friendly,green and wearable[65]。
图4 纤维素分子结构及其制备示意图

Fig. 4 Molecular structure of cellulose and schematic diagram of its preparation

the high hydrophilicity of cellulose will lead to the cracking of the sensor under high humidity conditions,which restricts the stability and service life of the sensor,so it is necessary to develop superhydrophobic cellulose-based sensors.Yun et al.Used renewable and degradable plant cellulose as the main raw material and hydrophobic silica as the coating to encapsulate the conductive layer to prepare a super-hydrophobic cellulose-based flexible sensor[66]。 the sensor can be used to effectively monitor various human movements in high humidity or underwater environments,and the integrated flexible electronic skin can be used to display the spatial strain distribution of the skin with the body movement.cellulose nanofibers have better size and reinforcement than bacterial cellulose and cellulose nanocrystals,which can provide better mechanical properties and conductivity for sensors.Based on this,Fu et al.used cellulose fibers,cellulose nanofibers and silver nanowires to assemble composite cellulose paper to construct flexible pressure sensors with high mechanical properties and sensitivity.It can be used to respond to finger movements,speech recognition and human body pulses,indicating that biomass materials have great potential to enhance the sensing performance and functionality of wearable monitoring devices[67]。
cellulose,a natural polymer,can be used to prepare Cellulose-based sensors by physical and chemical crosslinking,chemical modification and functionalization[68]。 the biocompatibility and renewability of cellulose materials can effectively increase the recyclability of cellulose-based sensors,and the controllable crosslinking mode of cellulose materials can endow the sensors with better structural stability and mechanical properties[69]。 In addition,the micro-nano structure and conductivity of cellulose materials are also key factors for the construction of high-performance flexible sensors[70]。 Cellulose-based sensors have been used in smart sensing,gas sensors,energy harvesting,medical diagnosis and other fields because of their advantages such as environmental friendliness,high sensitivity,tunable structure,chemical stability and excellent mechanical properties[71][72][73][74][75][76][77]。

3.5 Chitosan-based sensor

Chitosan is an environmentally friendly biopolymer composed ofβ-1,4-d-linked glucosamine units extracted from crustaceans(Fig.5),which is the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose.It can be transformed into gel through physical crosslinking interactions(such as hydrogen bonding,metal coordination,electrostatic force),and is mainly used for blending with other natural polymers(such as polysaccharides and proteins)[78][79][80][81][82]。 Chitosan has good application potential in sustainable and flexible electronic products because of its low cost,easy availability,good film-forming property,biocompatibility,biodegradability,antibacterial and bacteriostatic properties[83][84]。
图5 壳聚糖分子结构及其制备流程

Fig. 5 Molecular structure of chitosan and its preparation process

Chitosan is considered to be a functional biomaterial with more application potential than cellulose because of its excellent biological functions due to a large number of active amino and hydroxyl groups in the molecular chain[78]。 In the preparation of chitosan-based sensors,chitosan can be chemically modified by grafting,copolymerization,crosslinking,etc.,or endowed with specific sensing properties by doping nano-materials,copolymerization film formation,etc[85][86][87]。 In order to prepare a more simple,efficient and economical degradable flexible sensor,Zhang et al.Prepared a bio-based degradable flexible sensor using natural and renewable chitosan and potato starch as the main raw materials.the hydrogen bonds and coordination bonds formed between chitosan and other molecules make the sensor show good stretchability and fatigue resistance[88]。 the sensor can wirelessly detect the real-time movement of human joints,and its good degradation performance can effectively avoid the waste of resources.But chitosan is difficult to manufacture by traditional thermoforming or solvent-free methods due to its inherent disadvantage of being limited by its melting temperature higher than the degradation temperature.based on the plasticization of ionic liquid,Sun et al.Prepared chitosan-Based electrode sensors with good capacitance response characteristics by rolling and molding chitosan films[84]。 Among them,ionic liquids can be recycled by Soxhlet extraction,and sensors can also achieve rapid circuit recovery in acetic acid solution,which is of great significance for sustainable and scalable manufacturing of chitosan products。
Chitosan-based sensors usually have the characteristics of good biocompatibility,high sensitivity,good selectivity,strong mechanical properties and adhesion,and have been widely used in many fields such as biological recognition and sensing,wound dressing,bacterial sensors,electrode sensors and so on[89][90][91][92]。

3.6 Silk fibroin-based biosensor

silk fibroin,also known as Silk protein,has broad prospects in many applications related to human body because of its excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability[82]。 the main sources of silk fibroin are silkworm cocoons and spider silk,and its structure and preparation process are shown in Figure 6.Compared With globular proteins with many different structures,silk fibroin is a fibrous protein with a highly oriented crystal phase.with its excellent mechanical durability,tunable secondary structure,and in vivo biocompatibility,etc.,it has been identified as one of The ideal materials for epidermal and implantable electronic devices[93][94]。
图6 丝素蛋白分子结构及其制备示意图

Fig. 6 Molecular structure of silk protein and schematic diagram of its preparation.

In order To obtain a flexible sensor with good conductivity and response time,researchers used silk fibroin as a matrix to prepare a flexible sensor with excellent performance by controlling the amount of functional materials.silk fibroin can be regenerated and reshaped into fibers,films,etc.,and can also be doped with functional materials(such as carbon nanotubes,graphene,metal nanowires,etc.)to endow silk fibroin-based sensors with excellent conductivity,luminescence and improved mechanical properties[95][96][97]。 the gas permeability,biocompatibility and mechanical properties of flexible substrate materials play an important role in the long-term monitoring and display of flexible sensors.Therefore,Xu et al.Improved the uniformity and mechanical properties of the composite silk membrane by doping and modifying natural silk fibroin and adding polyurethane and isopropanol[98]。 the composite silk fibroin is used as a substrate material to manufacture a functional display screen based on the silk fibroin.the display screen has the characteristics of low cost,mechanical flexibility and mass production,and the display technology is helpful to grasp more data information,such as physiological health indicators,environmental parameters,health status and the like。
Silk fibroin-based sensors have attracted wide interest in flexible sensors,photonic fiber devices,oral health care,supercapacitors,artificial electronic skin and other fields because of their strong adsorption,toughness and excellent mechanical properties,so they are also one of the interesting candidates for the next generation of sustainable materials[99][100][101,102][93][103][104][105][106]。

4 Application of Biomass-based Sensors in Human Health Monitoring

human health monitoring mainly includes in vitro monitoring and implantable monitoring of human vital signs and exercise health status.Sensors can monitor pH value,heart rate,body temperature,blood oxygen and bioelectrical signals in real time by contacting or implanting into the human body,so as to achieve disease prevention and diagnosis[107]。 According to the different principles,it can be divided into the following four types of signal monitoring:physical signal(such as motion,sound)monitoring,chemical signal(such as ion concentration,pH)monitoring,bioelectric signal(e.g.ECG,EEG)monitoring and thermal signal(e.g.Body temperature)monitoring[108]。

4.1 Physical signal monitoring

human body physical signals include sound,touch and motion signals,etc.sensors used for human body physical signal monitoring are usually used for a long time with high frequency,and people often produce a lot of sweat in the process of physical motion,so sensing materials need to have the advantages of durability,ventilation and sweat resistance to ensure the normal use of Sensors.Guan et al.prepared a paper-based sensor by immersing paper one by one in MXene suspension and hydrophobic degradable sizing agent emulsion,in which the sizing layer made of lignin and rosin can effectively ensure the hydrophobicity and degradability of the composite material,so the sensor can accurately detect human motion signals even in underwater environment[109]。
In addition,the flexibility,scalability,and even frequent charging of batteries can limit the application of sensors,so an ideal sustainable power supply is essential for biomass-based sensors.Huang et al.Constructed a wearable self-powered pressure sensor by using natural and harmless biomass-based bacterial cellulose/chitosan composite and polydimethylsiloxane film doped with copper nanoparticles as positive and negative triboelectric layers,respectively[65]。 Biomass-based bacterial cellulose materials have ultrafine fiber structure,high crystallinity,excellent flexibility and high mechanical strength,which can not only be skin-friendly and compatible,but also reduce the burden of traditional conductor materials on the environment,and promote the development of sensors in the direction of more environmentally friendly,green and wearable.in order to make the sensor better adapt to the complex movements of the human body and reduce the risk of bacterial invasion,Yan et al.Introduced fish gelatin into the polymer network(Fig.7)to reduce bacterial infection and promote wound healing by growing silver nanoparticles in situ in the hydrogel network[110]。 The hydrogel strain sensor has high sensitivity(GF=4),excellent self-adhesion and antibacterial properties,so it can monitor a variety of human movements and provide accurate biomechanical information,providing important technical support for cost-effective,safe,green and high-precision personalized health assessment。
图7 FG-Ag水凝胶应变传感器在运动监测中的应用[110]

Fig. 7   Application of FG-Ag hydrogel strain sensors for motion monitoring[110]

4.2 Chemical signal monitoring

chemical signals mainly originate from sweat,urine and blood,which contain metabolites such as glucose and lactic acid,as well as electrolytes such as sodium and potassium ions.Accurate monitoring of Chemical signals in the body is helpful for early diagnosis of various diseases(such as kidney disease,diabetes,skin disease,etc.)。
the pH value of body fluid can reflect the metabolic level and electrolyte concentration of human body.However,due to the difficulty of real-time sampling,the pH monitoring technology has not been fully developed[111]。 Yang et al.Proposed a paper-based pH sensor with low cost,simple fabrication,convenient sampling,and accurate detection[112]。 the sensor consists of a sebum adsorption layer,a grease adsorption layer and an intermediate filter paper layer,respectively,which can effectively filter out the interfering substances(i.e.,grease,particulate matter and dust in sweat)that may affect the monitoring performance of the pH sensor,and reduce the influence of sebum on the potential response of the pH electrode.This paper-based pH sensor can be used to monitor human metabolic levels and pH balance,and help doctors obtain physiological information from patients with kidney disease,diabetes,and skin diseases to make better diagnostic decisions.in addition,the biomass-based material can contact with organisms without causing obvious immune reaction,and its unique biological activity is helpful to improve the sensitivity and stability of the pH sensor,so as to prepare the biomass-based pH sensor with environmental protection,economy and high sensitivity.Nawaz et al.Constructed an extended conjugated structure on the cellulose acetate skeleton and developed an environmentally friendly cellulose-based fluorescent pH sensor as shown in Figure 8.the sensor can not only clearly monitor the pH value through the change of fluorescent color in a narrow pH range,but also be made into a flexible fluorescent film for intelligent food packaging and anti-counterfeiting printing industries[113]。
图8 纤维素基荧光 pH 传感材料及其应用[113]

Fig. 8 Cellulose-based fluorescent pH sensing materials and their applications[113]

4.3 Bioelectric signal monitoring

With the increasing popularity of wearable personal health management devices,bioelectrical signal monitoring technologies such as daily ECG,EMG and EEG have attracted wide attention[114]。 the traditional bioelectric signal monitoring system has the disadvantages of huge size,high price and poor portability,which makes it difficult to meet the needs of long-term or daily monitoring[115]。 Therefore,it is necessary to develop flexible and reusable wireless bioelectrical signal monitoring devices to replace the existing complex monitoring systems。
Effective monitoring of human bioelectrical signals can help to complete exercise assessment and rehabilitation assessment,so as to carry out targeted exercise guidance or rehabilitation training.The Hobo Research Group of Beijing Institute of Technology has developed a myoelectric device for physical training of athletes in the Winter Olympic Games.By sticking electrodes on the skin of athletes,the sequence and degree of muscle activation during exercise can be repeatedly monitored.the data obtained can also be used as a basis for guiding athletes to exercise[116]。 However,during exercise,the adhesion of the electrode at the skin interface will gradually decrease,so it is usually difficult for the electrode to have good shape retention under sweating conditions.Researchers have learned that the Young's modulus of silk fibroin decreases in the presence of water and becomes similar to that of skin,and this water-responsive property makes silk fibroin one of the best choices for maintaining high adhesion and shape retention on sweaty skin.Chen Xiaodong of Nanyang Technological University used silk fibroin as an electrode material to prepare a composite electrode as shown in Figure 9 after Interfacial polymerization with polypyrrole.interfacial polymerization helps to form an interlocking structure between polypyrrole and the bonding layer,so that the stretchability of the film matches the bonding layer and the whole electrode is stretched uniformly[117]。 Secondly,the strong adhesion of the surface of the bonding layer makes the electrode fit well with the skin even when sweating.Wearable devices fabricated using this electrode are able to stably and reliably collect electrical signals during exercise and sweating situations。
图9 基于丝素蛋白电极的可穿戴设备在运动过程中的实时心电图信号[117]

Fig. 9 Real-time electrocardiogram signals from a wearable device based on silk protein electrodes during exercise[117]

4.4 Thermal signal monitoring

Thermal signal usually refers to the human body temperature signal,which can reflect a series of physiological conditions such as fever,cold,blood flow velocity,muscle fatigue and so on[118]。 Sensitive,accurate and rapid monitoring of human body temperature can effectively prevent physical abnormalities and avoid injuries caused by high or low temperatures[119]。
At present,sensors used for human body thermal signal monitoring usually have the disadvantages of large size,poor wearability and durability,and need to rely on external power supply to work.This will have a certain impact on the reliability and accuracy of signal monitoring,so it is of great significance to develop a wearable self-powered temperature sensor with repeated high temperature warning capability.Jiang et al.Prepared a self-healing aerogel fiber based on sericin and oxidized sodium alginate by introducing a strong reversible dynamic covalent bond into the alginate fiber[120]。 The fiber has the advantages of large length-diameter ratio,bendability,air permeability,washability and the like,and can quickly start an early warning system without an external power supply when an abnormal temperature is sensed,so that the fiber can be used for monitoring the abnormal temperature of a human body.in addition,the thermal stability of the flexible substrate is also indispensable for the high precision and reproducibility of the temperature sensor,and the appropriate flexible substrate is also a key factor affecting the performance of the temperature sensor.the eggshell membrane has a unique spatial lattice microstructure,and thus serves As an ideal substrate to achieve efficient skin heat collection and ultrafast heat diffusion.as shown In Fig.10,Zhang et al.Successfully constructed a flexible wearable temperature sensor with high sensitivity,good linearity,stability and fast response by combining eggshell membrane with reduced graphene oxide[121]。 More importantly,the sensor can monitor body temperature and respiratory temperature online in real time,thus contributing to a wide range of applications in health monitoring,disease diagnosis,and human-computer interaction。
图10 蛋壳膜基可穿戴温度传感器的制备过程及其在人体不同部位的温度分布[121]

Fig. 10 Preparation process of eggshell membrane-based wearable temperature sensor and its temperature distribution in different parts of human body[121]

Biomass-based sensors have been widely used in biological,agricultural,environmental and medical fields because of their environmental sustainability,flexibility,biocompatibility,low energy consumption and versatility[122,123]。 At present,biomass-based sensors can be easily displayed and transmitted on smart phones and terminal devices through wireless networks.With the deepening understanding of biomass-based sensor technology,it is expected to achieve more human body information monitoring in the future development[124]。

5 Conclusion and prospect

Compared with the traditional bulky and rigid electronic devices,the health monitoring system with flexibility and wearing comfort is the inevitable trend of future development.As an essential natural renewable resource in the field of health monitoring,biomass materials are widely used in flexible wearable sensing.However,the application and development of biomass-Based sensors are limited due to the difficulties in technology research and development and poor performance stability.based on the current research progress,we believe that more future research may focus on the following four directions。
(1)When biomass materials are used as sensor substrates,they are easily affected by external environmental factors,resulting in insufficient stability and durability of sensors,which affects their application effect.the sensitivity,mechanical properties,stability and durability of the sensor can be improved by regulating the structure and properties of biomass materials through material modification and structural design,which can promote its application in the field of medical health monitoring。
(2)traditional health monitoring usually relies on hardware devices and sensors,which largely limits the interaction and experience between users and devices.In the use of some specific users(such as the disabled,the elderly and children)and special scenarios(high temperature,low temperature,toxic environment,etc.),the Traditional health monitoring equipment is often difficult to meet the needs of users.Therefore,it is necessary to promote the development of health monitoring system through continuous research and development and technological innovation。
(3)the future health monitoring system pays more attention to invisibility and convenience,does not need to wear or contact complex hardware equipment,and realizes real-time monitoring of human physiological indicators through non-sensing technology or environmental sensing.It can transmit and save the monitoring information in real time through the combination of human-computer interaction technology,so that users and doctors can know the health status in time。
(4)During health monitoring,multi-modal physiological index monitoring can also be realized by using a variety of sensing technologies(such as optical,electrical,biosensing,etc.),so as to provide users with more comprehensive and accurate health monitoring and evaluation。

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