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Review of systematic synthesis methods of fine magnetite and its application in rock magnetism

  • Hui ZHOU , 1, 2 ,
  • YuHao HUANG 3 ,
  • KunPeng GE , 3, * ,
  • BaiHui HAN 3 ,
  • JunBo REN 3 ,
  • ZhaoXia JIANG 4 ,
  • QingSong LIU 5
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Received date: 2023-08-22

  Online published: 2024-09-29

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Copyright ©2024 Progress in Geophysics. All rights reserved.

Abstract

Fine-grained magnetite with single domain and its neighborhood is one of the dominant magnetic-carrying minerals in paleomagnetism. Its magnetic properties depend strongly on particle size, crystal form, shape and oxidation degree, etc., regardless of which will result in inaccuracy of paleomagnetic data recording and ambiguities in corresponding geological interpretations. In view of the complexity of natural magnetite particles, the computational limitation of micromagnetic modeling, and the locality of microscopic observation, we firstly elaborates on the significance of fine magnetite synthesis in rock magnetism, and then reviews the research status, applications, and challenges of fine-grained magnetite synthesis in rock magnetism. By introducing the synthesis methods of fine-grained magnetite in material magnetism, we then expound the paleomagnetic significance in geological applications. Finally, the applications of integrated magnetic synthesis method are put forward, including the study of the "magnetic unstable" particles, paleointensity and the forward and inversion of rock magnetism. This paper will provide systematic reference for the synthesis of fine-grained magnetite and its rock magnetic applications, and deepen our understanding of mineral magnetic properties and related geological processes.

Cite this article

Hui ZHOU , YuHao HUANG , KunPeng GE , BaiHui HAN , JunBo REN , ZhaoXia JIANG , QingSong LIU . Review of systematic synthesis methods of fine magnetite and its application in rock magnetism[J]. Progress in Geophysics, 2024 , 39(4) : 1401 -1414 . DOI: 10.6038/pg2024HH0313

0 引言

作为恢复板块运动历史、反演区域环境框架、揭示地球内部过程、探索星系早期演化等重大科学问题的手段之一,古地磁学方法在宜居地球与深空探测研究中扮演着重要角色(Bloxham, 2000; Labrosse et al., 2001; Monnereau et al., 2010; Gubbins et al., 2011Tarduno et al., 2015Wang et al., 2017).
古地磁学和环境磁学的研究前提是从地质样品中提取有效的地磁场信息.然而地质样品磁性记录受到如磁性矿物种类、粒径、含量、形状、相互作用以及环境改造等多种因素控制,造成了地质和环境解释的复杂性和多解性(Krása et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2012; Ge and Liu, 2014).此外,在地磁场古强度研究中,低温氧化、Thellier系列方法的热化学转化、相互作用、冷却速率、老化效应、多畴(MD)颗粒影响等会导致低估或高估古地磁场强度,影响到对地质样品所反映的地球动力学解译(李永祥和刘欣宇,2021Tauxe et al., 2021; Wang and Kent, 2021).
为了提高磁性记录和地质解译的准确性,古地磁学和环境磁学研究人员需要通过系统的实验和模拟研究,解耦物理化学参数等对古地磁学记录的影响,尝试恢复非理想样品的古地磁学信息(Dunlop and Özdemir, 2001; Liu et al., 2012).漫反射光谱分析( Liu et al., 2011; 姜兆霞和刘青松, 2016)、IRM分析(Kruiver et al., 2001)、一阶反转曲线(FORC)分析(Pike et al., 1999; Zhao et al., 2017)在一定程度上能够分析矿物的含量甚至粒度,但是此类岩石物理测量无法对更加精细的岩石磁学参数如颗粒形状、空间分布的反演.MMT微磁层析成像技术能够一定程度反演岩石颗粒内部结构,但仍然存在多解性(de Groot et al., 2018).
岩石磁学是古地磁学和环境磁学的研究基础,磁铁矿作为岩石磁学的主要研究对象之一,普遍存在于火成岩、沉积岩以及变质岩中.特别地,单畴(SD)及邻域(假单畴/单涡,PSD/SV)颗粒,即1 μm以下的细粒磁铁矿是古地磁方向和强度的主要载体.因此通过人工合成细粒磁铁矿样品,并进行磁学参数正演研究,将为多种磁性矿物合成与应用提供参考,对未来全方位解耦磁颗粒物化属性及其地质过程解译具有重要意义.

1 岩石磁学领域细粒磁铁矿合成与应用

1.1 岩石磁学领域的细粒磁铁矿合成

在岩石磁学磁铁矿合成方面(表 1),前人使用了草酸盐热分解法(Schmidbauer and Schembera, 1987)、微晶玻璃法(Worm and Markert, 1987)、溶胶-凝胶法(Amin et al., 1987)、研磨法(Day et al., 1977)、水热法(Levi and Merrill, 1978; Dunlop, 1986; Heider et al., 1987; Argyle and Dunlop, 1990)、电子束曝光法(Krása et al., 2011)和微生物合成法(Li C Y et al., 2013)等方法.在铁氧化物合成中,微生物法合成磁性矿物晶型好,而水热法具有反应速度快、产物结晶度较好等优点,因此微生物法和水热法在古地磁学研究中是较为常用的合成方法(Dunlop and Özdemir, 2001Jiang et al., 2013).
表1 岩石磁学领域细粒磁铁矿的合成方法

Table 1 Synthetic methods of magnetite in rock magnetism

合成方法 合成优势 合成缺点 粒径/nm 饱和剩磁/饱和磁化强度(Mrs/Ms) 矫顽力/mT 参考文献
草酸盐分解法 晶型好 需要二次还原,过程复杂 60~160 0.27~0.41 25~31 Schmidbauer and Schembera, 1987
微晶玻璃法 晶型好 易生成树枝状颗粒 30~10000 0.03~0.51 2.4~41.4 Worm and Markert, 1987
溶胶—凝胶法 晶型好 原材料昂贵,制作周期长 300~1200 0.09~0.03 3.1~7.4 Amin et al., 1987
研磨法 快速、便捷 内应力大 800~131000 0.02~0.13 3.2~29.5 Day et al., 1977
水热法 晶型好 局限于氧化物制备 120~250 0.10~0.44 10~43.8 Levi and Merrill, 1978
电子束曝光法 阵列式,可控间距 二维,晶型差 74~333 0.08~0.55 5.1~31 Krása et al., 2011
趋磁细菌磁小体 晶型好、生物相容性高 合成条件较高,产量较低 35~120 0. 44~0.50 10~20 Li J H et al., 2013

1.2 细粒磁铁矿合成样品的岩石磁学应用

以上方法合成的细粒磁铁矿被广泛应用于基础岩石磁学性质研究、低温氧化研究和古强度研究等领域(Gallagher, 1968; Özdemir and Dunlop, 1985; Dunlop,1986),在合成样品研究的助力下,磁学理论从Néel提出单畴(SD)理论( Néel, 1949, 1955),逐步发展到了假单畴(PSD)—多畴(MD)理论,进一步能够定性分析磁性矿物种类、粒径、含量、形状、相互作用等多种因素对于宏观磁性的影响(Maher, 1988; Dunlop and Özdemir, 2001).具有剩磁特征的磁性颗粒由小及大,形成单畴—假单畴—多畴(SD-PSD-MD)的连续畴态结构,如同人类基因的链段一般记载着古磁场的“遗传信息”.
合成样品研究加速了微磁模拟的兴起与发展,两者的结合开始定量解耦磁性矿物的物性参数(Williams and Dunlop, 1989; Fabian and Heider, 1996; Muxworthy et al., 2003),并进一步发现了磁性矿物中的花状(F, Flower)结构和单涡(SV, Single Vortex)结构.如图 1所示,早期有约束微磁模拟情况下,前人计算了不同粒径下的弛豫时间,从数值模拟上验证了60 nm以上的SD颗粒弛豫时间超过了宇宙年龄,为磁铁矿载磁稳定性研究奠定了基础(Enkin and Williams, 1994; Winklhofer et al., 1997; Muxworthy et al., 2003).
图1 微磁模拟不同形状磁铁矿的阻挡温度和弛豫时间随粒径变化图

Fig 1 Micromagnetic results of the blocking temperature and relaxation time of magnetite with different shapes as a function of particle size

Winklhofer等(1997)发现了在约75 nm立方体结构(等价于约93 nm的立方八面体)附近的弛豫时间低值(图 1).进一步,Nagy等(2017)在无约束微磁模拟情况下,报道了一个“磁不稳定区”(Magnetic unstable zone),它存在于SD/SV边界.其磁畴状态从花状(F)状态变为SV状态,涡旋核心沿难磁化轴[0 0 1]对齐而不是[1 1 1]易磁化轴,这种转变以磁阻挡温度的突然降低为标志,如图 1中的等维立方八面体结构粒径约84~100 nm的区域.该区域下的磁不稳定颗粒(Magnetic Unstable grain,以下简称MU颗粒)各磁晶各向异性能差异很小,冷却过程中在微扰动下极易产生不同方向的磁化,形成难磁化轴指向的SV为主的结构(Hard-axis Aligned SV,HSV),同时也会出现易轴指向的SV结构(Easy-axis Aligned SV, ESV)甚至是SD结构(Wang et al., 2022).
近期研究表明这种MU颗粒同样出现在拉长型截角八面体磁铁矿的低温氧化模拟之中(图 2)(Ge et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022),造成了低温氧化过程中磁滞参数BcMrs/Ms“缓升陡降”的趋势.
图2 微磁模拟低温氧化过程中MU颗粒剩磁状态随氧化程度变化图(修改自Ge et al., 2021)

其中(a—c)为90 nm颗粒,氧化程度(Fe2+氧化为Fe3+的比例)z=0, 0.45, 1;(d—i)为100 nm颗粒,氧化程度z=0, 0.21, 0.45, 0.79, 0.98, 1.等值面图显示了主要载磁结构,(a, d—i)和(b,c) 分别代表了磁化强度矢量单元与剩余磁化方向夹角小于20°和小于10°的矢量范围.

Fig 2 Micromagnetic modeling of remenant magnetization of MU particles versus oxidation degree during low temperature oxidation (modified from Ge et al., 2021)

Where (a—c) are the Mrs states for 90 nm particle, with oxidation degree (the proportion of Fe2+ oxidized to Fe3+) z=0, 0.45, 1; (d—i) are states for 100 nm particle, with oxidation degree z=0, 0.21, 0.45, 0.79, 0.98, 1. Translucent isosurfaces containing all moments lying within 20° and 10° of the net remanence direction in (a, d—i) and (b, c), respectively.

近些年,微磁模拟发展突飞猛进(Almeida et al., 2016; Nagy et al., 2017, 2019; 葛坤朋和刘青松,2018; Conbhuí et al., 2018),在预测实验结论、厘定磁畴状态、模拟复杂颗粒、研究化学改造等岩石磁学研究中发挥了重要作用(葛坤朋和刘青松,2018).经过发展,已经形成具有高性能计算能力的开源软件MERRILL,能够实现初始态下的自发磁化模拟,未对输出结果进行任何限制或约束.MERRILL能够实现不同温度下多颗粒多相矿物的模拟,并能计算不同晶轴之间的热稳定性,对磁记录稳定性的研究具有重要意义(Conbhuí et al., 2018).

1.3 岩石磁学中细粒磁铁矿合成样品存在的问题

目前,合成实验与微磁模拟技术脱节.基于磁铁矿的微磁模拟仅能依赖于20世纪80年代水热法合成结果(Williams et al., 2010; Ge et al., 2021).由于早期合成颗粒分布不一,分散程度较差,磁学测量手段较少,限制了对微磁模拟方法的进一步验证和改善,进一步影响了对古地磁数据记录可靠性的认知.
面向岩石磁学的磁铁矿合成面临粒径非均一、内应力大等问题.例如研磨样品,通常具有较大的内应力(Day et al., 1977; Yu et al., 2002).在此之中,合成磁铁矿无法克服强烈的偶极相互作用导致与真实自然样品存在差距是合成样品面临的主要问题.再加上纳米颗粒较大的表面积以及较高的表面能,容易发生团聚,难以达到分散状态.例如Muxworthy等(2003)通过微磁模拟发现,即使质量分数为1%的使用高纯度高岭土分散磁铁矿(Dunlop, 1986),依然存在较强的相互作用.即颗粒发生团聚,未能实现对相互作用的有效剥离.在相互作用下,狭窄的MU颗粒快速降低的磁性特征可能会被隐藏平均到整体之中(图 3),其磁学特征的具体影响仍然无法从宏观整体磁学特征中体现出来并加以判断.虽然我们使用商业合成颗粒,通过低温氧化“扫描”磁不稳定区,鉴定了MU颗粒的宏观磁学表达,但仍无法进一步推断其对磁记录可靠性的具体影响,影响了岩石和沉积物磁记录的准确地质解译.
图3 微磁模拟结果下拉长磁铁矿单颗粒(形状因子sf=1.3)和颗粒集(sf=1.2; 1.3; 1.4)对“磁不稳定区”MU颗粒(约100~150 nm)的平均效应(修改自Ge and Liu, 2014; Ge et al., 2021)

Fig 3 The averaging effect indicated by micromagnetic modeling of single particle (shape factor, sf=1.3) and assemblages (sf=1.2; 1.3; 1.4) of the MU magnetite particles (about 100~150 nm) (modified from Ge and Liu, 2014; Ge et al., 2021)

2 材料磁学的细粒磁铁矿合成

2.1 材料磁学领域细粒磁铁矿的合成方法

由于磁铁矿颗粒具有生物相容性、磁效应、表面效应等特征,可广泛应用于环境治理、生物医药、生物传感、磁流体、磁存储、隐形材料等领域(Ge et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2008, 2012; Feyen et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2011; Sindoro et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2019).目前,材料领域学者已通过多种方法来制备纳米磁铁矿颗粒(如表 2所示).由表可知,古地磁学领域使用过的草酸盐分解法(热分解法)、水热法、研磨法、溶胶—凝胶法在材料领域也同样被广泛使用,并且材料领域学者尝试了更为多样化的合成方法,如气溶胶法、溶剂热法、电化学法、声化学法、微乳液法、多元醇法等.
表2 材料磁学领域主要的细粒磁铁矿合成方法

Table 2 Main synthetic methods of magnetite in material magnetism

合成方法 合成特点 磁铁矿形状 平均粒径/nm 饱和磁化强度/(Am2/kg) 矫顽力/mT 粒径控制参数 参考文献
热分解法 颗粒结晶度高、粒径分布窄,但合成过程需惰性气氛和较高的反应温度(100~350oC) 立方体 13,45,67, 124,180 54.7~98.0 约5.0 升温速度 Guardia et al.,2010
球形 8,11,15,18 65~75 表面活性剂种类和浓度 Lee et al.,2018
球磨法 操作简单,但晶格畸变、能耗高 7.4,8.0,9.6 88~90 趋于0 Goya,2004
气溶胶法 产率高,但粒径分布较宽且需高温条件 球形 6.9,8.4 32, 62 Hammad et al.,2020
球形 30~80 Grabis et al., 2008
共沉淀法 操作简单,但颗粒易团聚,粒径分布较宽 球形 28~70 42.3~64.38 1.09~1.692 pH值 Sirivat and Paradee, 2019
水热法 操作简单、易于放大、且粒径和形貌可控 球形 15.4,16.7,22.4,31.1 53.3,65.1, 81.2,97.4 反应物浓度、溶剂组成 Ge et al.,2009
三角棱柱 边长×厚:113×25 81.44 12.629 Li et al.,2010
溶剂热法 粒径和形貌可控、粒子团聚较少、能耗较低 球形 82,139,188, 544,728,1116 56,71,73, 79,80,80.27 11.5,14.1,14.9, 13.9,13.6,12.7 H2O的体积分数 Liu et al.,2016
球形 6,60,120,170 溶剂组成 Xuan et al.,2009
球形 100,125,135, 150,175,275 69,72,65, 32,56 10.6,4.2,6.6, 2.1,2.8 温度、反应时间 Kolhatkar et al.,2017
纳米板 宽×边长×厚: 120×90×7 84.7 11.772 Zhang et al.,2009
声化学法 混合均匀、可减缓晶体生长 立方体 80 85.8 17.3 Abbas et al., 2013ab
立方体 40 79.5 10.0 Abbas et al.,2015
电化学法 产物纯净、可连续生产,但合成速度慢、产率低 球形 7.5,7.9,10.2,10.6 86.85,75,81.59,46.97 18.2,14.0,10.1,96.9 Marín et al.,2016
球形 42.10,45.67,47.67,55.01 64.7,51.8,79.2,73.4 4.27,7.15,3.18,89.7 电流密度 Hajnorouzi and Modaresi,2020
微乳液法 产物粒径和形貌可控,但表面活性剂残留、难以放大 球形 13~15 52.4~70.6 表面活性剂 Li et al.,2014
6~20 20~50 0.5~5.0 反应物浓度、水/表面活性剂比例 Ha et al., 2008
溶胶-凝胶法 产物粒径和形貌可控,但需高温煅烧、放大困难 35~1300 0.7~1.3 周洁,2005
球形 9~12 56.8~68.1 退火温度 Qi et al.,2011
多元醇法 操作简单、易放大、产物粒径和形貌可控 球形 11,24,34,104, 273,338 30,49,52, 89,121 NaOAc浓度、FeCl3与水的摩尔比 Oh et al.,2020
球形 9.2,32.3 75,85.87 —,12.0 Abbas et al., 2013a, b
磁铁矿合成的各种方法都有其特点,最终合成的样品形貌和磁学性质也存在一定的差异(见表 2).如在热分解法、水热法和多元醇法中存在磁铁矿饱和磁化强度大于92 Am2/kg的情况,这可能是乙酰丙酮铁热分解后的磁铁矿存在部分铁核、磁铁矿纳米球特殊的表面特征及实验误差所引起.综合考虑,热分解法、水/溶剂热法、电化学法及多元醇法是可在古地磁领域尝试使用的几种主要的材料合成方法.进一步充分考虑产品具有较高的矫顽力(分散性)、较好的粒径均一性以及较宽的合成粒径尝试(先验性),溶剂热法和热分解法是可以优先考虑在古地磁领域实现磁铁矿系统合成的方法.溶剂热法具有颗粒形貌易控、团聚较少且操作简单、能耗低的优点,并可合成粒径精确可控在几十至数百纳米的磁铁矿颗粒(Yan et al., 2008).该方法是在水热法的基础上发展起来的,即在密闭体系如高压釜内,以无机铁盐(如氯化铁)为铁前驱体,以有机物为溶剂,在一定的温度和溶液的自生压力下,原始混合物进行反应的合成方法( Choucair et al., 2009).目前该方法尚未用于古地磁磁性矿物合成及应用之中.
不仅在磁铁矿合成方法上,材料领域的研究者们还进一步丰富了铁前驱体材料,并改进或组合多种工艺以获得满足不同需求的磁铁矿颗粒.例如,在热合成法中将铁源从草酸氨铁盐(Schmidbauer and Schembera, 1987)扩展到N-亚硝基苯羟胺铁(Rockenberger et al., 1999)、十二羰基铁(Amara and Margel, 2013)及乙酰丙酮铁(Guardia et al., 2010)等铁化合物.而溶剂热法结合微波(Li C Y et al., 2013)、微乳液(Li et al., 2014)及磁场(Wang et al., 2007)等技术可获得更为多样化的磁铁矿样品.Li C Y等(2013)报道微波辅助溶剂热法可为前驱体溶液中的均匀晶种创造条件,并能加速Fe3O4纳米晶的形成,从而缩短溶剂热的合成时间、获得饱和磁化强度更高的磁铁矿样品.

2.2 细粒磁铁矿物化属性的调控

在古地磁学研究中,不同地质样品中所载磁性矿物的物化属性也有所不同,纳米磁铁矿的磁学行为受颗粒尺寸、形状、结晶度及表面性质的影响.在合成过程中,这些参数又受合成方法及合成中使用的化学物质(如铁前驱体、表面活性剂、溶剂等)的影响(Nguyen et al., 2021).例如,利用封端剂与晶体表面的相互作用可以改变Fe3O4晶面的自由能顺序,影响晶面的生长速率,合成不同形状的磁铁矿颗粒(Yu and Chen, 2011)(图 4).
图4 不同形状的合成磁铁矿

(a)纳米线状(He et al., 2007);(b)棒状(Yang et al., 2020);(c)球状(Liu et al., 2016);(d)八面体(Li et al., 2010);(e)立方体(Yu and Chen, 2011);(f)三角棱柱(Li et al., 2010).

Fig 4 Synthetic magnetite with different shapes

(a)Nanowire (He et al., 2007);(b)Rod (Yang et al., 2020);(c)Sphere (Liu et al., 2016);(d)Octahedron (Li et al., 2010);(e)Cube (Yu and Chen, 2011); (f)Triangular prism (Li et al., 2010).

采用大多数合成方法可获得球形的磁铁矿(见表 2),而立方体型磁铁矿的合成目前报道的有热分解法(Guardia et al., 2010)、溶剂热法(Elsayed et al., 2017)、沉淀法(Vergés et al., 2008)、声化学法( Abbas et al., 2013a, b).其他形态如三角棱柱型(Li et al., 2010)、纳米棒(Yang et al., 2020)、多臂纳米结构(Gu and Shen, 2009)等亦见少量报道.
合成过程中的操作参数(如表面活性剂种类和浓度、溶剂组成、升温速率等)亦可改变磁铁矿的形貌和尺寸.表 2呈现了部分合成方法的具体粒径调控参数.在水热合成法中,当pH值由7增至12时,Fe3O4颗粒由不规则颗粒—规则立方体结构—不规则多面体结构转变,且颗粒平均尺寸由126.6 nm增至618.5 nm(Yu and Chen, 2011).在相对较高的pH值(pH=10),反应液中的水合肼分子或分解的铵离子可能优先吸附在{100}晶面上,从而形成立方体Fe3O4颗粒.此外,辅以聚乙二醇的水热合成法可获得纳米棒状或纳米线状的磁铁矿样品(He et al., 2007).而在溶剂热合成过程中,以1, 6-己二胺和1, 3-丙二胺为辅助试剂分别合成出球形和三角棱柱型磁铁矿,且溶剂乙二醇和1, 3-丙二胺的体积比对颗粒形状起重要作用(Li et al., 2010).由于乙二醇中的羟基及有机弱碱1, 3-丙二胺中的氨基均可与Fe3+配位形成络合物,两种试剂的极性不同,在磁铁矿晶面上的吸附效果不同,随着两种试剂体积比的增大,Fe3O4颗粒由板状结构(低比例)——三角棱柱结构——八面体结构(高比例)转变.

2.3 细粒磁铁矿分散性的提高

纳米磁铁矿具有高表面能,容易发生颗粒团聚.为提高颗粒的分散性,材料领域的学者们主要利用空间位阻效应或静电作用制备功能化改性Fe3O4颗粒.空间位阻效应是通常在粒子表面包覆单层或多层其他材料来阻碍粒子间的物理接触,起到了分散稳定的作用;静电作用则是使磁铁矿粒子连接带电离子,形成双电层,通过静电斥力提高其在溶剂中的分散性.这两种机制均需通过对Fe3O4颗粒表面进行改性修饰.根据改性过程与颗粒合成的时间关系,可将改性分为原位改性法和后改性法.
(1) 原位表面改性法是指在采用共沉积法、热解法、水热合成法或溶剂热合成法等制备Fe3O4颗粒的过程中,加入一定量的小分子或者大分子表面活性剂(如油酸、月桂胺、对苯二甲酸、聚乙二醇、聚乙烯基吡咯烷酮等)(Si et al., 2004; Kandasamy et al., 2018).合成体系中表面活性剂的存在对减缓Fe3O4成核速率和防止粒子聚集具有重要作用.最终合成的纳米磁铁矿颗粒表面附着着表面活性分子,使得纳米颗粒可以均匀的分散在有机溶剂(如正己烷)中形成均相溶液(Si et al., 2004).以含氨基和羧基的小分子表面活性剂(如1, 4-二氨基苯、4-氨基苯甲酸等)原位改性的Fe3O4纳米颗粒分散在水相中,溶液的Zata电位显著提高,表明溶液中粒子间的静电斥力较大,分散体系的稳定性较好(Kandasamy et al., 2018).原位改性法过程简单,通常磁铁矿合成过程中会采用以提高颗粒在溶剂中分散,也可作为进一步改性制备预修饰的磁铁矿颗粒.
(2) 后改性法是针对已合成的Fe3O4颗粒,通过自缩合反应、微乳液聚合法或层层自组装法等在Fe3O4表面包覆无机惰性材料(如二氧化硅(SiO2)、二氧化钛)、有机高分子聚合物(如聚多巴胺,聚苯乙烯、聚丙烯酸、聚乙烯亚胺)或金属有机框架材料(如MIL-100)等,最终形成具有核壳结构或混晶结构的复合颗粒(图 5).由于包覆物的存在产生空间位阻效应或者壳层表面大量离子的存在产生静电作用,减弱或阻止颗粒间的聚集,从而达到提高分散性的目的.后改性法可利用多种合成材料,经过一次或多次改性过程形成结构复杂的复合颗粒,是最常用的一种磁铁矿改性法.通过控制缩合时间、反应物浓度、组装次数等参数可调控包覆壳层的厚度,在药物缓释、生物传感器、吸附分离等方面均有应用研究.
图5 表面包覆改性复合颗粒的结构示意图

黑色:单晶Fe3O4纳米颗粒,彩色:包覆材料.

Fig 5 Structure diagrams of surface coated modified composite particles

The internal black parts are single crystal Fe3O4 nanoparticles and the color parts represent the coating materials.

以Fe3O4@SiO2复合颗粒为例(图 6),主要有以下合成途径:(1)反相微乳液法,该方法适用于分散在油相中的磁铁矿的二氧化硅涂覆.首先,Fe3O4纳米颗粒分散于含表面活性剂胶束(如Igepal Co-520)的有机相中,加入氨水形成反相微乳液体系.随后添加正硅酸乙酯(TEOS),TEOS将在油/水界面水解并与吸附在Fe3O4纳米颗粒表面的Igepal Co-520进行配体交换,将纳米颗粒转移到水相中.最后,水解的TEOS经缩合反应后在Fe3O4表面形成SiO2层.由于该过程中纳米颗粒表面包覆一层表面活性剂分子,粒子间不易聚结,形成的Fe3O4复合颗粒具有图 5中core-shell-1结构,具体见图 6a(Ding et al., 2012);微乳液液滴大小一般为10~100 nm,因此适用于粒径较小的纳米颗粒的表面改性.(2)Stöber合成法,该方法是利用TEOS的原位水解和缩合反应在Fe3O4表面形成二氧化硅包覆,可实现单个纳米颗粒或凝聚磁铁矿颗粒的包覆,适用于可溶于极性介质的颗粒包覆(Deng et al., 2008; Li and Zhao, 2013; Zhou et al., 2019).由于SiO2粉体不易聚集、稳定性高,包覆SiO2的Fe3O4复合颗粒具有很好的表面稳定性,且易于分散在介质中(陈永等,2008).此外,以十六烷基三甲基溴化铵(CTAB)为模板剂还可制备介孔二氧化硅壳层结构(Deng et al., 2008),介孔壳层可提供磁铁矿进一步氧化还原的通道,实现对磁铁矿样品的化学改造以及其他特征矿物(磁赤铁矿、赤铁矿)的古地磁学实验研究.
图6 (a) 反向微乳液法制备的Fe3O4@SiO2纳米颗粒TEM图(核为约12.2 nm的Fe3O4颗粒,修改自Ding et al., 2012);(b)Stöber法制备的Fe3O4@nSiO2@mSiO2复合颗粒的TEM图

(核为由15 nm的Fe3O4组成的聚集磁铁矿,壳由无孔SiO2内壳和介孔SiO2外壳组成,修改自Deng et al., 2008)

Fig 6 TEM diagrams of (a) Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoparticles prepared by reverse microemulsion method (with about 12.2 nm Fe3O4 core, modified from Ding et al., 2012); (b) Fe3O4@nSiO2@mSiO2 composite particles prepared by Stöber method

(the core is an aggregated magnetite composed of about 15 nm Fe3O4 particles, and the shell is composed of a porous SiO2 inner shell and a mesoporous SiO2 outer shell, modified from Deng et al., 2008)

图 6看出,磁铁矿的化学分散效果较好,甚至可与古地磁领域的电子束曝光制备效果相比拟,并具有成本低、结晶好和三维结构的优势(Krása et al., 2011).环境和医学领域虽然广泛使用磁铁矿,但多专注于超顺磁性颗粒的合成研究,其目的主要是考察纳米颗粒对磁场的快速反应(Majewski and Thierry, 2007; Li and Zhao, 2013).在磁存储材料等领域,学者多针对SD属性如坡莫合金等强磁性材料进行磁滞磁能的研究和应用(谢凯旋,2013).因此材料科学研究对象与古地磁学所需的SD-MU-SV-MD间的磁铁矿颗粒不尽相同,无法直接采用以满足古地磁学领域研究的特定需求.

3 展望

综上所述,岩石磁学正演研究可以考虑充分结合岩石磁学研究的材料需求和材料领域的磁性矿物合成办法,将精细磁铁矿化学合成方法系统性引入,合成面向岩石磁学的粒径均一、分散可控的细粒磁铁矿颗粒.并且在磁性矿物合成中,不能照搬研究方案,还需要考虑古地磁学实验的特殊性,包括磁学性质和高温实验的稳定性、形状改造和化学改造的可能性等.针对性合成的磁性矿物将有助于认识“磁不稳定区”MU颗粒的实验影响和自然样品的磁学表达,及至综合解耦全颗粒物化性对磁记录影响等古地磁学基本问题.

3.1 MU颗粒特性研究

MU颗粒在等维立方磁铁矿中的区域为约84~100 nm,在等维截角八面体磁铁矿中的区域为约79~97 nm,在低温氧化的拉长型截角八面体磁铁矿中表现为约80~120 nm(Ge et al., 2021).因此有理由相信,这些MU颗粒可能以不同粒径出现在地质样品的各类磁性矿物的剩磁之中,其影响尤其是在以细粒磁性矿物为主的地质样品中将是不可忽视的.故而整个磁颗粒记录区间将重新划定为单畴—磁不稳定颗粒—单涡—多畴(SD-MU-SV-MD)结构.
然而在古地磁学中,这些MU颗粒不同于初始磁场的磁化方向和不稳定的强度,干扰了SD和SV结构(磁记录的优良载体)载磁行为,它们可能通过诸如低弛豫时间、冷却速率、老化效应和pTRM tail等不良效应降低古地磁记录可靠性(Ge et al., 2021; Tauxe et al., 2021),被认为是古地磁学的“bad boys”(Ge et al., 2021).
此外,如能在古地磁学中合成并表征MU颗粒,因其高磁化率和低剩磁,形成了易导向、低团聚的特征,未来可能部分取代高团聚的SP(超顺磁)颗粒,广泛应用于环境、医学、存储、材料等领域.
因此可以考虑使用溶剂热等方法,合成中值粒径在MU颗粒粒径附近的窄分布磁铁矿颗粒,通过接枝或包覆剥离相互作用,制备古地磁样品.通过岩石磁学和古地磁学实验,佐以基于粒径统计的微磁模拟和单颗粒电子全息成像,鉴别“磁不稳定区”颗粒的磁学实验表达,提出对MU颗粒敏感的磁学参数,探讨获取准确磁记录的校正或规避方法.

3.2 古强度研究

地球磁场是一个矢量场,除能反应构造事件的地磁场古方向之外,地磁场古强度的变化蕴藏着更丰富的地球深部动力学过程的信息,其强度及变化特征为地球乃至星系空间演化提供了重要的约束资料( Wang et al., 2017).然而测定地球磁场古强度所涉及的理论、实验技术和方法也更为复杂.其主要困难是对实测加热过程中矿物成分转化的严格要求,并且地磁场古强度数据的准确获取也同时受到载磁矿物的粒径、形态、含量、化学转化等诸多因素的综合影响(朱日祥等,2003).
因此,可以运用磁性材料合成方法(图 6),合成SiO2包覆磁铁矿颗粒.在古强度研究中,首先使用无孔SiO2包覆磁铁矿颗粒,固定化学转化程度和颗粒平均间距,变化颗粒粒径,能够考察粒径对强度数据提取准确性的影响;其次,通过使用无孔和多孔SiO2包覆颗粒进行实验对比,固定颗粒粒径和平均间距,能够考察化学改造对地磁场古强度提取准确性影响;再次,使用无孔SiO2包覆磁铁矿颗粒,固定其他物性参数,能够评估pTRM check, pTRM-tail check, Cooling rate, Aging effect等检验和效应的有效性和影响程度;进一步地,使用无孔SiO2包覆磁铁矿颗粒,混合磁赤铁矿和赤铁矿颗粒,可以考察多种类磁性矿物对地磁场古强度提取准确性的影响.

3.3 岩石磁学正反演

在古地磁学中,将合成样品与天然样品的岩石磁学特征进行比较,进而探讨天然样品所对应的地质事件是一种地球物理正反演的关系.如同在勘探地球物理研究中,只有已知地下各种规则矿体的异常,才能对实测数据使用数值分析方法反演真实的矿体状态.
但目前不同粒径颗粒的具体磁学表达不尽明确,各物化参数相互耦合的数据将更加复杂.仅靠20世纪80年代古地磁领域内合成数据约束的微磁模拟进行数值研究是远远不够的,比如MU颗粒影响下正常/倒转磁组构、古强度中的热转化、Arai图的曲率等等均有待明确.通过控制变量,构建全颗粒物化属性对古地磁(强度)影响的正演模型,将如同IRM获得曲线(Kruiver et al., 2001)和FORC图(Zhao et al., 2017)组分分析一样,为将来古强度数据的正确反演提供“实物”数据支持,为共轭梯度、模拟退火甚至人工智能等先进数值反演方法的引入提供契机,最后获得最真切的天然样品的古强度记录.
将合成样品分析结果应用于测量天然样品古强度,结合岩石薄片、XRD和岩石磁学结果,在一定已知约束下尝试反演自然样品载磁颗粒物化属性占比,最后获得天然样品的古强度记录及提取方法.从合成样品和天然样品实验上通过岩石磁学正反演,综合厘定物化特征(全颗粒、形状、氧化、相互作用)对古地磁场(方向和强度)记录的影响.最终将能够融会材料科学与地球科学中的磁学和地磁学,使得实验磁学与微磁模拟的发展相匹配,构建微观磁学、宏观磁学到应用磁学环环相扣的纳米古地磁学新方法.

4 结论

细粒磁铁矿作为自然界最重要的载磁矿物之一,其载磁机理的解译也具有显著代表性.充分利用材料领域磁铁矿合成方法,克服岩石磁学研究中自然磁铁矿颗粒的复杂性、微磁模拟的计算有限性、以及显微观测的局域性问题,将能够从实验上综合厘定物化特征(全颗粒、形状、氧化、相互作用)对古地磁场(方向和强度)记录的影响.进一步将以上方法应用于天然样品的古地磁信息提取,包括“磁不稳定区”颗粒的研究、古强度学应用研究和岩石磁学正反演研究等.材料科学与地球科学的结合,将使得实验磁学与微磁模拟的发展相匹配,构建出微观磁学、宏观磁学到应用磁学环环相扣的纳米古地磁学新方法,最终进一步加深我们对矿物磁学性质及关联地质过程的理解.

感谢周利民博士在磁性材料合成机理上给予的帮助,同时感谢王云博士在合成样品模拟实验中的帮助.

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