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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2025 , Vol. 37 >Issue 1: 103 - 111

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC240708

Microplastics Special Issue

Key Environmental Behaviors of Tire Wear Particles and Their Influencing Mechanisms

  • Hongwei Liu ,
  • Yuxin Yuan ,
  • Tianchi Cao , * ,
  • Tong Zhang ,
  • Wei Chen
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  • College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
*e-mail:

Received date: 2024-07-10

  Revised date: 2024-11-07

  Online published: 2025-01-07

Supported by

National Natural Science Foundation of China(22241602)

National Natural Science Foundation of China(22125603)

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Abstract

Due to the rapid growth in the number of vehicles and freight transport, tire wear particles (TWPs), generated from the friction between tires and road surfaces, have become the main source of microplastics in the environment. TWPs are widely detected in various environmental media, including soil, surface water, and sediments. An in-depth mechanistic understanding of the environmental interfacial processes of TWPs is of great significance for the control of microplastic pollution. In this paper, we first summarized recent progress in the interfacial chemical processes of TWPs, including the transport behavior, environmental transformation, release of toxic additives, and the adsorption of co-existing pollutants on TWPs. We then addressed some existing issues in current research and proposed future directions toward a better understanding of the environmental behavior and potential environmental risks of TWPs.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Fate and transport of TWPs in the environment

2.1 Transport via rainfall and runoff

2.2 Atmospheric transport

2.3 Aggregation and sedimentation behavior of TWPs in the aquatic environment

3 Transformations of TWPs in the environment

3.1 Physical and chemical transformations of TWPs

3.2 Microbial transformation of TWPs

4 Release of additives from TWPs

5 Accumulation of contaminants on TWPs

6 Conclusion and outlook

Key words： tire wear particles; environmental interfacial processes; transport; transformation; release of additives

Cite this article

Hongwei Liu , Yuxin Yuan , Tianchi Cao , Tong Zhang , Wei Chen . Key Environmental Behaviors of Tire Wear Particles and Their Influencing Mechanisms[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2025 , 37(1) : 103 -111 . DOI: 10.7536/PC240708

1 introduction

Microplastics refer to plastic particles with particle size less than 5 mm, which has been identified as a global environmental problem. Microplastics affect aquatic and terrestrial organisms through food chain, drinking water and air, and may even pose potential risks to human health[1]The sources of micro plastics in the environment include the wear of automobile tires, the use and breakage of agricultural films, the aging of plastic building materials and food packaging materials, and the discharge of sewage treatment plants[2-3]In the past two decades, with the continuous increase of car ownership and the rapid growth of highway freight transportation, particles from tire and road wear have become the main source of micro plastics in the environment[4⇓-6]For example, the results of estimating the sources of microplastics in the environment of different countries according to the model show that 94%, 70% and 54% of the microplastics in Switzerland, Sweden and China come from motor vehicle tire wear, respectively[4,7]Compared with other types of micro plastics, the composition of tire wear particles is complex, including 40%~60% of rubber, 20%~35% of carbon black and silica, and 5%~10% of additives (such as oxidants, plasticizers, vulcanizates, etc.)[8-9]The tire wear particles themselves and the toxic additives released by them will cause harm to the ecosystem and life and health[10⇓-12]. for example, recentlyScienceIt is pointed out that the conversion of 6-ppd-quinone, a tire wear particle additive in rivers, caused the death of salmon poisoning[13]。
During the migration process of tire wear particles in the environment, complex physical, chemical and biological transformation and other environmental interface chemical processes will occur, resulting in changes in their physical and chemical properties (such as morphology, size, surface functional groups, etc.)[14⇓-16]On the one hand, these changes in physical and chemical properties affect the release of harmful additives[17]On the other hand, it will also affect the migration of tire wear particles, interaction with environmental media and coexisting pollutants, biological toxicity and ecological effects[18-19]Therefore, studying the chemical behavior of tire wear particles' environmental interface is helpful to understand their environmental behavior and assess their ecological risk, and can provide a basis for controlling tire wear particles' pollution.
This paper summarizes the key environmental behaviors of tire wear particles in recent years（Figure 1）The research results mainly include the migration behavior of tire wear particles in different environmental media, environmental transformation, the release mechanism of endogenous harmful additives, and their enrichment and carrier of coexisting pollutants in the environment. In addition, the influence mechanism and structure-activity relationship of environmental interface chemical processes on the environmental behavior and environmental effects of tire wear particles were discussed. Finally, the limitations of the current research on the environmental behavior of tire wear particles in the aspects of sample diversity, system monitoring and comprehensive impact assessment are analyzed. The future research directions were prospected, and the need for more systematic on-site investigation and in-depth research on the transformation mechanism of tire wear particles was emphasized, so as to promote the comprehensive understanding and effective management of tire wear particles.
Figure 1 Main ways and key environmental behaviors of tire wear particles entering the environment

Fig. 1 Emissions of TWPs into the environment and environment fate and behavior of TWPs

2 Migration of tire wear particles in environment

Tire wear particles migrate to different environmental media mainly through road runoff, rainwater scouring and atmospheric transmission（Figure 2）[20-21]The vast majority of tire wear particles will be deposited in the road and the soil on both sides of the road[22]Under the action of rainwater scouring, some particles further diffuse to surface water, sediment substrates of rivers or lakes, groundwater systems and sewage treatment plants[23-24]A small number of small tire wear particles will enter the atmosphere for long-distance transmission[25]。
Figure 2 The main migration path of tire wear particles in the environment[34]

Fig. 2 The main migration pathways of TWPs in the environment (adapted from ref 34)

2.1 Rainfall erosion and surface runoff diffusion

After the tire wear particles are generated on the road, the larger particles are deposited on the road under the action of gravity, and will agglomerate with dust, road particles and brake particles in different phases, forming larger aggregates[26]Under the action of rainwater scouring, road runoff is formed, which carries these particles for migration, and the larger particles will be intercepted by the soil on both sides of the road. Affected by many factors (such as rainfall and terrain), the flux of tire wear particles entering the environment through road runoff is different. The model prediction shows that 25%~75% of tire wear particles can be washed into the roadside soil environment by rainwater through road runoff[27⇓-29]The concentration of tire wear particles in soil decreased with the increase of the distance from the road edge[30]About 80% of the tire wear particles are deposited in the soil within 5 m on both sides of the road, and the tire wear content in the soil 0.5 m away from the road edge is much higher than that in the soil 2.5 m away from the road edge[31]The tire wear particles are mainly accumulated in the surface soil, and the longitudinal migration is limited. In the soil of 3 cm depth, the tire wear particles concentration is 1/30 of the surface soil[32]Tire wear particles will also enter the sewage treatment plant through the municipal pipeline system, and may be applied to agricultural soil in the form of activated sludge after treatment[33]. KOLE et al[34]Through the establishment of a model to analyze the mass flow of tire wear particles in the runoff transport process, the results show that 8768 tons of tire wear particles enter the environment in the Netherlands every year, of which about 67% remain in the soil, 15% enter the sewage treatment plant through the drainage system, and 12% enter the surface water directly or indirectly through runoff（Figure 2）。
In view of the complex physical and chemical properties of tire wear particles (such as composition, size, shape, surface properties, etc.), the migration process of tire wear particles to various environmental media is complex, which is affected by hydrodynamic conditions (rainfall, velocity, etc.), hydrochemical conditions (pH, ionic strength, coexisting organic matter and natural particles), and other factors. Most of the existing studies on the migration and diffusion of tire wear particles to environmental media are based on the analysis of mass flow model, and lack of sufficient understanding of the microscopic process and mechanism of their migration and diffusion in the environment. Moreover, due to the limitations of detection methods, most of them focus on large-size particles (tens to hundreds of microns), and there are few studies on the migration behavior of submicron and nanoscale particles[35]。

2.2 Atmospheric transport and diffusion

After the tire wear particles are generated, a part (0.1%~10%) will be suspended in the air, spread with the air flow, and finally settle to the surface (such as soil and surface water). The main influencing factor of the migration process of tire wear particles in the atmosphere is the particle size, which can be divided into>10 μ m, 1~10 μ m, 0.1~1 μ m, and<0.1 μ m sections according to the influence effect[34]The tire wear particles with size>10 μ m are difficult to suspend under the action of gravity, and are easy to deposit at the source of the road; The transport process of particles with the size of 1~10 μ m in the atmosphere is affected by particle characteristics, local climate, topography and other conditions. The migration time varies from a few minutes to several hours, and the migration distance can even reach dozens of kilometers. When the tire wear particles migrate for a long distance, they are easy to agglomerate with other components in the air to form a larger particle size polymer, which will affect the transportation and deposition efficiency[36]At present, there are few studies on the atmospheric migration process of tire wear particles with the size of 0.1~1 μ m, and there is a lack of clear data. Based on the research of other PM2.5 particles, it is speculated that nano scale tire wear particles can be suspended in the air for several days to several weeks, and their migration distance can reach 1000 km. Although a large number of tire wear particles have been detected in the atmospheric environment, compared with other particles, the migration and transformation process in the atmospheric environment, the impact mechanism of PM2.5 particle formation, and its effect on human respiratory health are not fully studied.

2.3 Agglomeration and settlement of tire wear particles in water environment

Agglomeration and settlement of tire wear particles in water environment are important factors affecting their migration, occurrence and distribution characteristics[8]At present, there are few direct studies on the agglomeration and sedimentation process of tire wear particles in water environment. The agglomeration and sedimentation behavior of tire wear particles can be inferred to a certain extent through the research results of agglomeration and sedimentation process of other micro plastics and artificial nano particles. asFigure 3The results show that under the action of various substances in water (such as various metal ions and natural organic matter (NOM), the surface charge of tire wear particles is weakened, and homogeneous agglomeration will occur; At the same time, there are a large number of colloidal particles in the environmental water (the surface charge is opposite to the tire wear particles), which can agglomerate with the tire wear particles in different phases. This agglomeration process will significantly change the stability, settling rate and migration ability of tire wear particles in environmental water[37-38]It will also affect its spatial distribution in the water environment (such as suspension in water bodies and accumulation in sediments). It is worth noting that colloidal particles in actual water are usually natural mineral organic matter complexes[39]The interaction mechanism with tire wear particles will be more complex.
Figure 3 Agglomeration and settlement of tire wear particles in water environment

Fig. 3 Aggregation and sedimentation of TWPs in the aquatic environment

The surface of tire wear particles in water environment will adsorb macromolecules such as natural organic matter and extracellular polymers (EPS), forming an "ecological crown"[40]These interfacial chemical processes will change their surface physical and chemical properties (such as surface hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity, the number and type of oxygen-containing functional groups, steric hindrance strength, etc.), and then affect their agglomeration process and migration ability. Previous studies have shown that a small amount of carboxyl groups on the surface of polystyrene particles reduce the surface hydrophobicity, and will selectively adsorb components with different molecular weights in humic acid, fulvic acid and EPS, showing steric hindrance effects of different strengths, resulting in different migration characteristics of particles[41]Compared with other types of particles (such as conventional microplastics and artificial nanoparticles), the chemical composition of tire wear particles is more complex and the surface physical and chemical properties are more heterogeneous[42-43]The selective adsorption of NOM and EPS on the surface of its particles in the water environment, the mechanism of agglomeration and sedimentation process and the main influencing factors are also very different, which can not be accurately inferred from other types of particles. Therefore, the homogeneous and heterogeneous agglomeration process and the main influencing factors of real tire wear particles in water environment need to be studied.
Due to the widespread and continuous hydrological exchange between surface water and groundwater, tire wear particles will be transported to the groundwater system; Secondly, micro nano scale tire wear particles may migrate longitudinally in the soil and enter the deep soil layer through the soil gap until they migrate to groundwater[44]The migration ability of tire wear particles in soil and groundwater is not only affected by the particle size, saturation and roughness of porous media, but also related to its own physical and chemical properties. For example, the oxygen-containing functional groups of tire wear particles (such as hydroxyl and carbonyl groups) will improve the surface hydrophilicity of particles, enhance colloidal stability (i.e., reduce agglomeration behavior), and promote the migration energy of particles in saturated porous media[45]。

3 Transformation of tire wear particles in environment

3.1 Physical and chemical transformation of tire wear particles during environmental migration

During the migration process of tire wear particles in the environment, they will crack, break and other morphological changes under the action of surrounding environmental mechanical forces (including friction between soil and gravel, turbulent collision, etc.)[15,46-47]With the expansion of surface cracks, particles will break up and release smaller secondary particles and additives (such as nano carbon black and silica particles)[48-49]The tire wear particles will also undergo direct or indirect chemical transformation under the action of ultraviolet rays and oxidants, including photooxidation, ozone decomposition and thermal oxidation. Photooxidation is considered to be the most important aging process of tire wear particles, which mainly occurs in the atmosphere and road surface. The typical chemical bonds (such as C-C, C-H and C-O) of tire wear particles (containing polymer components) need to be irradiated by high-energy ultraviolet (UV-C, 100-280 nm) to break the bonds[50]These chemical bonds are unable to absorb ultraviolet light with a wavelength of more than 190 nm. The spectral range of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth is mainly 280-400 NM[51]Therefore, tire wear particles are difficult to be directly photodegradated by ultraviolet light. However, the chromophores of rubber components in tire wear particles (such as c=c, c=o and aromatic structure) will absorb ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 290~400 nm to form free radicals, which will induce the fracture of polymer chains, leading to the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups (such as C-O, c=o and COO -)[52-53], causing indirect aging. Aging process will change the composition and surface characteristics of tire wear particles (such as surface roughness, particle size, surface functional groups, micro pore structure, etc.), and affect the interaction and agglomeration behavior between tire wear particles, the leaching process of endogenous additives, pollutant adsorption behavior, biological toxicity, etc[54-55]。
Due to the existence of the surface ozone layer, tire wear particles will also undergo ozone decomposition（Figure 4）. The carbon carbon double bond (c=c) of the rubber component in the tire wear particles is oxidized by ozone and breaks, forming functional groups such as hydroxyl or carboxyl groups[56]The surface of the rubber body of the tire wear particles also cracks. In addition to direct oxidation by ozone, ozone will further attack C-O and C-H by generating oxygen free radicals, and eventually generate oxygen-containing functional groups c=o and o-c=o, etc[15]In addition, the increase of ambient temperature will promote the diffusion of oxygen in the tire wear particles and activate the oxidation reaction, leading to the molecular chain fracture and molecular weight reduction of rubber[57]Finally, the tire wear particles will release small secondary particles. The temperature of asphalt pavement can be as high as 60 ℃ in summer. For tire wear particles deposited on asphalt pavement, the thermal oxidation process is significant. In order to resist the aging effect of ozone and temperature on tires, p-phenylenediamine antioxidants (PPDs) are commonly used as additives in rubber production[58]This has also become a source of endogenous harmful additives for tire wear particles.
Figure 4 Ozone aging of rubber components in tire wear particles[15]

Fig. 4 Chain scission of the rubber in TWPs by ozonolysis (adapted from ref 15)

3.2 Biotransformation of tire wear particles during environmental migration

During the migration of tire wear particles in the environment, a large number of microorganisms will attach to their surfaces, providing carbon sources for the growth of microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi)[59]The molecular chains of rubber components of tire wear particles (such as polyisoprene) are crosslinked by sulfides, which can be broken by anaerobic and aerobic microorganisms in the environment, resulting in degradation of rubber components, reduction of crosslinking degree, and formation of compounds with low molecular weight containing aldehyde groups and unsaturated bonds on the surface of particles[60]Studies have shown that a variety of bacteria (such as actinomycetes and Streptomyces) can secrete rubber lyase to degrade polyisoprene and produce oligomers containing aldehyde and ketone groups (i.e., low molecular weight compounds), which are finally converted into corresponding small molecular acids[61]For example, Moraxella can use cis-1,4-polybutadiene rubber (average molecular weight 2350) as a carbon source to degrade 40% of the rubber within 5 days[59]Fungi (such as gordonella, Nocardia and Mycobacterium) are easy to adsorb on the rough area of the surface of rubber particles, and even enter the interior of the particles through the cracks on the surface of the particles, degrading the rubber components to produce compounds containing aldehyde groups[59]。
Microorganisms may completely mineralize rubber components and convert them into carbon dioxide. By studying the mineralization time of organic components in tire wear particles, the mineralization rate and half-life can be calculated[62]To assess the environmental fate and behavior of tire wear particles. Due to the different molecular structures of natural rubber and synthetic rubber, their biodegradability by microorganisms is also different. In addition, additives in tire wear particles (such as antioxidants and preservatives) inhibit the activities of bacteria and enzymes and reduce the biodegradation process[63]The release or transformation of organic additives in tire wear particles is conducive to the subsequent biodegradation process[64]Therefore, the biodegradation half-life of different types of tire wear particles will vary greatly under different environmental conditions, which also brings challenges to the evaluation of the biodegradation process of tire wear particles.

4 Release of endogenous harmful additives from tire wear particles

Tire wear particles contain plasticizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, photothermal stabilizers and other additives[42,65]It is released and transformed in the process of migration and transformation in the water environment. There are 35 kinds of organic micro pollutants and 22 kinds of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons released into the environment by tire wear particles[66]Among them, 4-methylaniline, benzothiazole, naphthalene, aromatic amines and zinc were identified as candidate compounds with toxic effects. The total content of 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tire wear particles was 37~65 μ g/g; The average content of benzothiazoles was 99 μ g/g, and the highest was 250 μ g/g[67]The content of zinc is 10-20 mg/g[68]。
Water transport is an important way for tire wear particles to migrate in different environmental media. The release process of different types of additives with different properties to the aqueous phase will be significantly different. The release process of endogenous additives from particles to the aqueous phase can be divided into two steps: the rapid release of additives from the particle surface to the aqueous phase, whose release driving force is mainly affected by the distribution ability of additives at the solid-liquid interface between particles and water; The slow diffusion of additives inside particles to the surface of particles is affected by the microstructure of particles. Therefore, the physical and chemical properties of particles (such as crystallinity, particle size, specific surface area, etc.), environmental factors (such as temperature, light, salinity, pH, etc.), environmental transformation and aging process will affect the release degree of additives. For example, the higher the glass transition temperature of the particles, the smaller the diffusion coefficient of the release process of the flame retardant contained in the particles[69]The increase of salinity and pH in water will inhibit the release of zinc from tire wear particles[70]。
In recent years, scholars have carried out a series of studies on the release process of tire wear particle additives[71⇓-73]The content of endogenous additives such as antioxidant 6-ppd-quinone and rubber accelerator 1,3-diphenylguanidine in tire wear particles decreased exponentially with time[17]The aqueous solution leaching experiment showed that the release amount of 6-ppd-quinone was about 0.48 μ g/g (the release rate was about 0.16 μ g/(g · day)), the release amount of 1,3-diphenylguanidine was about 43 μ g/g (the release rate was about 3 μ g/(g · day)), and the release amount of benzothiazole was about 150 μ g/g (the release rate was about 50 μ g/(g · day))[74]Aging at the same time leads to relaxation of rubber matrix and increase in the number of micro cracks, thus accelerating the leaching of additives and organic carbon in Twps[74]And the effect of light aging is stronger than that of heat aging. The size of tire wear particles will affect the release process of endogenous additives. The research shows that the release rate of additives from small size (<0.1 mm) tire wear particles in the water environment (taking 6-ppd as an example) is 1.7 times that of large size (>2 mm) particles; Under UV irradiation, the size effect is more obvious, and the release rate of small particles is 5.4 times that of large particles[75]The reason is that the small tire wear particles produce more reactive oxygen species under light, leading to stronger aging effect, and more particles are fragmented, thus enhancing the release of endogenous additives.
Tire wear particles contain rubber, carbon black, silicon dioxide and other components, and the properties of tire wear particles (such as size distribution, vulcanization degree and component content) produced by different brands of tires (with different production formulas), uses (such as cars, trucks, etc.) and operating conditions differ greatly. Because the distribution ability of additives at the interface of different components of tire wear particles is different, compared with single component particles (such as conventional micro plastics), the release adsorption equilibrium mechanism of additives is more complex and difficult to predict[43,76]The existing research results on the release law of additives in other types of particles can not accurately reflect the release amount and release process of tire wear particle additives in the real environment. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out in-depth and systematic research on the release degree, dynamic characteristics and influence mechanism of different additives in tire wear particles under the actual environmental correlation conditions. In addition, the follow-up study can quantify the environmental transformation process and rate of tire wear particles under uniform and close to the real environment, and analyze and compare them. This will help to reveal its behavior characteristics and long-term environmental risks under different environmental conditions.

5 Enrichment and loading of coexisting pollutants by tire wear particles

After entering the environment, tire wear particles can be used as carriers to adsorb coexisting pollutants in the environment (such as non biological pollutants such as heavy metals and organic pollutants, and biological pollutants such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses)[18,77⇓-79]So as to promote the diffusion of pollutants in the environment. For example, the results of chemical composition analysis of wear particles in motor vehicle tires show that the average sum of the contents of 20 polycyclic aromatic compounds in the belt is 94.13 μ g/g[80]Tire wear particles can adsorb pollutants in the environment through hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding, surface complexation, van der Waals force, π - π interaction, micropore filling, etc（Figure 5）The specific mechanism and adsorption affinity are determined by the composition of particles, microstructure and surface chemical properties, physical and chemical properties of pollutants, and hydrochemical conditions[43,81]Tire wear particles contain rubber (such as styrene butadiene rubber, SBR), carbon black (CB), silica and other components. The adsorption affinity of different components is significantly different, or a single component is dominant, or the components are coupled with each other. The mechanism of pollutant adsorption may be more complex than that of conventional microplastics particles, which is difficult to predict[76,82]。
Figure 5 Adsorption mechanism of coexisting pollutants by tire wear particles

Fig. 5 Mechanisms for the adsorption of pollutants on TWPs

Due to the synergistic effect of carbon black and butadiene components in tire wear particles, the particles showed strong adsorption capacity for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as acenaphthene and phenanthrene)[83]At the initial stage, acenaphthene and phenanthrene are mainly adsorbed on the carbon black on the particle surface, and then continue to adsorb on the rubber component (i.e. butadiene) and enter the particle after reaching adsorption equilibrium. Due to the hydrophobicity of tire wear particles, their adsorption capacity for pollutants with low solubility or hydrophobicity is greater than those with high solubility or hydrophilicity. Compared with the conventional polyethylene microplastics, the tire wear particles showed stronger adsorption capacity for Chlorotetracycline and amoxicillin[55]Tire wear particles can adsorb heavy metal ions through surface complexation. For example, because the tire wear particles are rich in oxygen-containing functional groups and carbon black components, their adsorption capacity for lead ions is stronger than that of polystyrene and polylactic acid microplastics[78]In addition, tire wear particles can provide growth sites for pathogenic bacteria, promote the rapid formation of biofilms, and serve as a carrier for the colonization and transportation of pathogenic bacteria[84]。
The adsorption capacity of tire wear particles to pollutants is affected by its aging process. Aging can change the surface morphology of particles, increase the surface roughness and pores on the surface of particles, so as to enhance the adsorption capacity of pollutants[55,85]Aging can increase the number of oxygen-containing functional groups (such as ketones, esters and hydroxyls) and enhance hydrophilicity[86-87]It is conducive to the adsorption of heavy metal pollutants. In addition, aging will change the crosslinking degree of rubber components of tire wear particles. The reduction of crosslinking degree is conducive to the diffusion of small molecular substances and promote the adsorption of pollutants[88]Common types of rubber used in tires include natural rubber, styrene butadiene rubber, styrene butadiene rubber, etc., which have different aging resistance[89]The existing studies pay less attention to the pollutant adsorption process of tire wear particles from different uses and sources. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research on the adsorption capacity and kinetic characteristics of pollutants after the transformation or aging (including physical, chemical and biological methods) of different types of tire wear particles.

6 Conclusion and Prospect

The environmental interface process and environmental effects of tire wear particles have received extensive attention, and have become the frontier and hotspot in the field of environmental science. This paper reviews the research progress in the migration process of tire wear particles, environmental transformation, the release of endogenous harmful additives, and their enrichment and carrier of coexisting pollutants in the environment. Compared with other particulate pollutants (such as conventional micro plastics), the research on tire wear particles as an important contribution source is relatively less, and the current research still has many limitations and deficiencies.
First of all, the number of motor vehicles (435million in 2023) and road freight volume in China are the highest in the world. The tire production and consumption in 2023 are 980million respectively. However, there is no systematic report on the occurrence characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives in different environmental media in China. Because the release and migration of tire wear particles are affected by regional road runoff, water environmental conditions and atmospheric factors, it is difficult to accurately infer the environmental occurrence and distribution characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives in China by using the limited field survey data of a few other countries. Therefore, it is necessary to sample the typical environmental media in the potential hot spot area of tire wear particles, carry out systematic investigation and research with high reliability and strong representativeness, evaluate the occurrence characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives, and identify the main influencing factors.
Secondly, the research on the aging process of tire wear particles in the environment focuses on the change of particle properties during aging process, and there is no quantitative analysis on its degradation mechanism and degradation rate; The effect of carbon black and zinc oxide components in tire wear particles on their photodegradation process is not clear. The existing research also focuses on the light aging process in the water environment. Atmospheric deposition is also an important way for tire wear particles to migrate to the water body. Therefore, it is necessary to study the photoaging mechanism of tire wear particles at the gas-solid interface.
In addition, the components of tire wear particles are complex, and the properties of tire wear particles produced under different brand sources and operating conditions are quite different, resulting in different environmental behavior and ecological effects. It is necessary for future research to use tire wear particles close to the real source as the research object, or to collect tire wear particles samples from the actual environment for research, so as to more accurately understand and predict the environmental behavior and ecological effects of tire wear particles.

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