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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2025 , Vol. 37 >Issue 1: 89 - 102

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC240801

Microplastics Special Issue

Environmental Processes and Ecological Effects of Micro- and Nano- Plastics in Soil-Plant Systems

  • Jie Yang 1 ,
  • Chen Tu 1, 2 ,
  • Xianzheng Yuan 3 ,
  • Yongming Luo , 1, 2, *
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  • 1 State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
  • 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
  • 3 Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
*e-mail:

†These authors contributed equally to this work.

Received date: 2024-08-19

  Revised date: 2024-10-23

  Online published: 2025-01-08

Supported by

National Science Foundation of China(41991335)

National Science Foundation of China(42177039)

National Science Foundation of China(22241602)

Postdoctoral Fellowship Program of CPSF(GZC20232783)

China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2024M753328)

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Abstract

Micro- and nano-plastic pollution is impacting global terrestrial ecosystems. The environmental processes and ecological effects of micro- and nano-plastics in soil-plant systems are gaining increasing attention. This study focuses on elucidating processes such as accumulation and transport, weathering and degradation, additive release and transformation, pollutant interaction, biofilm colonization, heterogeneous agglomeration, and the uptake and transport of micro- and nano-plastics in flora and fauna. It systematically examines the impacts on the physico-chemical properties, plants, invertebrates, microbial community composition and diversity and carbon/nitrogen cycling in soil, as well as the potential risks of agricultural product accumulation and food chain transfer. Future research directions in this field are proposed to advance understanding of the hazards posed by micro- and nano-plastics pollution in terrestrial ecosystems and to support the scientific development of prevention and control strategies.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Environmental processes of micro- and nano- plastics in soil-plant systems

2.1 Accumulation and transport processes of micro- and nano-plastics in soil

2.2 Weathering, fragmentation, and biodegradation of micro- and nano-plastics in soil

2.3 Additive release and transformation of micro- and nano-plastics in soil

2.4 Pollutant interactions with micro- and nano-plastics in soil

2.5 Biofilm formation through microbial colonization of micro- and nano-plastics in soil

2.6 Uptake and transport of micro- and nano-plastics in soil by plants and animals

3 Ecological effects of micro- and nano-plastics in soil-plant systems

3.1 Effects of micro- and nano-plastics on soil physicochemical properties

3.2 Effects of micro- and nano-plastics on carbon/ nitrogen cycle

3.3 Effects of micro- and nano-plastics on plants

3.4 Effects of micro- and nano-plastics on soil invertebrates

3.5 Effects of micro- and nano-plastics on soil microbial community and enzyme activity

4 Potential risks of micro- and nano-plastics on agricultural product safety and food chain transfer

4.1 Accumulation and risks of micro- and nano- plastics in agricultural products

4.2 Food chain transfer and its potential health risks of micro- and nano-plastics

5 Future research prospects

Key words： microplastics; nanoplastics; terrestrial ecosystem; soil-plant system; environmental process; ecological effect

Cite this article

Jie Yang , Chen Tu , Xianzheng Yuan , Yongming Luo . Environmental Processes and Ecological Effects of Micro- and Nano- Plastics in Soil-Plant Systems[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2025 , 37(1) : 89 -102 . DOI: 10.7536/PC240801

1 introduction

Plastics has become one of the most closely related chemicals in people's daily life, and the global production of plastics has reached 400 million tons in 2022[1]Due to the wide use of plastic products and imperfect recycling and management, a large number of plastic wastes enter the land and marine environment. It is estimated that the global annual output of plastic waste will reach 155-265 million tons in 2060[2]Plastic waste accumulated in the environment is constantly weathered or degraded into micro plastics (≤ 5 mm) or even nano plastics (<1 μ m) under physical, chemical and biological effects[3]Micro/nano plastics are small in particle size, easy to form compound pollution with other pollutants, and pose risks to ecosystem, food safety and human health. The environmental pollution and harm caused by micro/nano plastics have been paid more and more attention all over the world. In 2022, at the resumed session of the fifth United Nations Environment Conference, representatives from 175 countries adopted a historic resolution on "ending plastic pollution". The Chinese government attaches great importance to the pollution of micro plastics. In the action plan for the treatment of new pollutants issued in 2022, it clearly pointed out that it is necessary to strengthen the research on the ecological and environmental harm mechanism of new pollutants such as micro plastics.
Micro/nano plastic pollution is a common problem in terrestrial ecosystems. Micro/nano plastics can enter the soil through a variety of ways, including the use of agricultural materials, atmospheric deposition, runoff and irrigation, and the loss of transportation or daily necessities (such as the wear of tires and textiles), etc[4]The soil under different land use patterns has been polluted by micro/nano plastics to varying degrees, including agricultural soil, industrial soil, urban soil and wetland soil[5⇓-7]Agricultural soil accounts for about 38% of the total land, and is the most widely used land on earth[8]In agricultural activities, agricultural film residue, sewage irrigation and fertilizer application can make a large number of micro plastics enter the farmland.
Higher plants are an important part of terrestrial ecosystem, and are usually the starting point of biological accumulation. Li et al[9]Revealing the mechanism of micro/nano plastics absorption and transport by plants is an important milestone in the study of terrestrial environmental plastics[10]A variety of vegetables and gramineous crops containing vascular tissue can absorb and transport micro/nano plastics through roots and leaves[11,12]When plants are exposed to a certain amount of micro/nano plastics, their plant height, total biomass and other morphological functions, physiological functions, oxidative stress response and genotoxicity will be affected. This effect is affected by many factors, such as plant species, diversity of micro/nano plastics (particle size, shape, type and concentration) and complexity of soil environment[13]。
Micro/nano plastics in the soil plant system will undergo environmental processes such as accumulation, migration and degradation. Under the action of physics, chemistry and microorganisms, the surface of micro/nano plastics will release additives and become the carrier of pollutants, pathogenic microorganisms and antibiotic resistance genes, forming a unique microbial community, affecting soil structure, soil porosity, soil bulk density, soil moisture content pH、 Soil organic matter content and other physical and chemical properties[14]In addition, micro/nano plastics can also change the oxidative stress response of soil invertebrates, causing tissue damage, DNA damage, genotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, metabolic disorders, etc[15]Micro/nano plastics can be ingested by animals or transferred to animals through the food chain, and accumulate in various tissues of life, posing a potential threat to human health[16]。
This paper reviews the latest research progress of micro/nano plastics in soil environment at home and abroad, focusing on the environmental processes and ecological effects of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system, mainly including the accumulation and migration, weathering and degradation, additive release and transformation, pollutant adsorption and desorption, microbial colonization and biofilm formation, absorption and transport of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system, and the ecological effects of micro/nano plastics on soil physical and chemical properties, animal/plant growth, microbial community composition and diversity, soil carbon/nitrogen cycle, as well as the potential risks to food safety and human health, so as to provide reference for pollution prevention and risk management of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system.

2 Environmental processes of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system

Micro/nano plastics with a wide range of sources can accumulate in the surface soil for a long time, and migrate under the influence of rain erosion, surface runoff, root growth and animal activities, as well as weathering, crushing or degradation into micro/nano plastics with smaller particle size under the abiotic and biological effects such as light and heat. At the same time, micro/nano plastics can not only release harmful additives (such as phthalates, etc.), but also become carriers of environmental pollutants (heavy metals, organic pollutants, etc.) and pathogenic microorganisms, thus forming compound soil pollution (such asFigure 1As shown in).
Figure 1 Environmental processes of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system

Fig. 1 Environmental processes of micro- and nano-plastics in soil-plant systems

2.1 Accumulation and migration of micro/nano plastics in soil

2.1.1 Distribution and accumulation of micro/nano plastics in soil

According to the nationwide survey, the average abundance of farmland microplastics in China is 4536.6 kg-1(the amplitude is 1.6~6.2 × 105Piece kg-1）The regions with high to low average abundance are South China, North China, Northwest China and Qinghai Tibet Plateau[17]The most common types of micro plastics in soil are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyester (polyester fiber and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)), which are widely used in plastic materials and textiles[18⇓-20]In most farmland, the main shapes of microplastics are fibers and fragments[18,21]Due to the influence of different sources of microplastics, the distribution characteristics of microplastics in soil are different. For example, thin film microplastics are the most common in agricultural soils[22]Foamed microplastics are more common in coastal soils[23]These distribution differences may be related to the history of plastic use and regional economic activities (such as agricultural soil mulching and coastal aquaculture using foamed plastics).
Affected by soil components (minerals and organic matter) and soil organisms, micro plastics from different sources will accumulate in the surface soil after entering the soil. Agricultural activities such as film mulching, sludge farming and manure application are important sources of micro plastic accumulation in soil. Yang et al. Respectively revealed the accumulation of microplastics in farmland soils with long-term film mulching (4 and 10 years), long-term sludge application (9 years), and long-term pig manure application (22 years). The research results showed that the annual accumulation of microplastics introduced by long-term film mulching into cultivated soil would reach 14.04~18.09 million ha-1The annual accumulation of microplastics in soil caused by sludge application can reach 7.68-29.04 million ha-1The annual accumulation of micro plastics in soil caused by pig manure application reached 3.5 million ha-1[22,24,25]Another study showed that the total accumulation of micro plastics in soil caused by continuous application of pig manure compost and cow manure compost for 11 years reached 203-579 million ha respectively-1And 173-722million ha-1[26]Runoff, irrigation and atmospheric deposition are also direct sources of soil micro plastics. Chen et al[27]477 farmland soil samples from 109 cities in mainland China were investigated. It was found that the theoretical contribution rates of agricultural film, livestock manure, irrigation water and atmospheric deposition to soil micro plastics were 17.1%, 4.0%, 7.6% and 5.9%, respectively. Further analysis showed that the total contribution rates of livestock manure, irrigation water and atmospheric deposition to the farmland of food crops, cash crops, vegetables, fruits and mixed crops were (31.2 ± 24.5)%, (29.3 ± 18.4)%, (19.9 ± 20.8)%, (13.6 ± 13)% and (28.9 ± 23.9)% respectively[28]Compared with agricultural film, the contribution of these three sources to micro plastics in farmland soil is relatively small.

2.1.2 Agglomeration of micro/nano plastics in soil

Micro/nano plastics in soil can occur homogeneous agglomeration and form heterogeneous aggregates with natural colloids or other particles in soil environment. Micro/nano plastics can physically adhere to these substances through chimerism, electrostatic interaction and intermolecular force, form complexes through chemical bond interaction, or agglomerate under the adhesion of extracellular polymers secreted by microorganisms and plant root exudates[29⇓-31]Taking electrostatic adsorption as an example, there are positive charges on the edge of the clay mineral surface with permanent negative charges. These sites provide favorable deposition sites for nanoplastics with negative charges, which are easy to form heterogeneous aggregates and affect the migration of microplastics[32]Under the influence of long-term climate change, microplastics can combine with inorganic minerals in soil through chemical bonds and form complex[30]The aggregation of micro/nano plastics in soil is affected by its surface properties (charge effect, particle size, hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, concentration, etc.) and environmental conditions[33]It is found that the aging of microplastics can increase the negative charge on the surface of microplastics and prevent the occurrence of homogeneous agglomeration[34]And make it easy to combine with positively charged iron and aluminum oxides in soil environment through electrostatic interaction or ligand exchange to form heterogeneous aggregates[29]The presence of humic acid in the environment leads to the increase of electrostatic repulsion and steric hindrance and the competition for reaction sites on the surface of minerals, which increases the reaction energy barrier between minerals and micro/nano plastic particles and reduces agglomeration[29]Another study showed that 20 nm nanoplastics could enter the interlayer structure of montmorillonite, while 80 nm nanoplastics were adsorbed on its surface[35]At present, the related research is still less, and the agglomeration behavior of micro/nano plastics in complex soil environment still needs to be further studied.

2.1.3 Migration of micro/nano plastics in soil

Micro/nano plastics accumulated in soil for a long time can migrate horizontally and vertically under the influence of different environmental factors (abiotic factors: soil pores, leaching, runoff and wind; biological factors: Soil animals, microorganisms and plant roots)[36]Water erosion can make micro/nano plastics enter the river system from farmland and other soils. Research shows that due to soil erosion, about 22700 tons of micro/nano plastics will enter the river system in 2020[37]Wind erosion will also affect the horizontal migration of surface soil micro plastic. According to research estimates, after 25 years of using plastic film, the annual release of plastic waste caused by wind erosion is 6.91~38.11 kg · ha-1About 6.14/m in one month2The microplastics deposited in an area 690 kilometers away from the pollution source[38]Agricultural activities such as tillage, harvesting and drip irrigation can make micro/nano plastics enter deep soil from surface soil. Through the fitting analysis of drip irrigation amount and migration depth, it was found that micro plastics in sandy soil and loam tillage layer (0~30 cm) could migrate to 1 m soil layer under 9.34 and 6.56 years of drip irrigation amount, respectively[39]Bioturbation is the key factor of micro/nano plastic migration in soil. For example, compared with the coarse root of corn, the fine root of ryegrass is easier to capture the micro plastic in its root network, preventing the migration of micro plastic and maintaining it in the surface soil[40]Film like microplastics are easier to be captured by the roots of plants in the soil than granular microplastics and are difficult to migrate[40-41]The activities of soil invertebrates such as earthworms and Collembola in soil can drive the migration of microplastics to deeper layers; With the increase of earthworm density, the migration ratio increased[42]。
Column migration experiment is an important means to explore the migration law and mechanism of micro/nano plastics in soil, groundwater and other media. Through the research of column experiment, it is found that the micro plastic can migrate with the pore water flow, and can also move on the surface of the medium through sliding, jumping, rolling and other forms[43]The properties of micro/nano plastics (size, type, shape and surface characteristics) affect their migration[40]Compared with PVC, PLA has stronger migration ability, and the hydrophilicity of the surface weathering and degradation microplastics is enhanced, and the zeta potential is reduced, which promotes its migration in the medium[44]Organic matter and minerals in soil have important effects on the migration of micro/nano plastics. Taking PS microplastics as an example, dissolved organic matter promotes the migration of PS microplastics due to electrostatic repulsion and steric hindrance[45]The heterogeneous aggregates formed by montmorillonite and diatomite with PS nanoplastics (80 nm) in soil limited the migration of nanoplastics, and the migration of heterogeneous aggregates formed by PS nanoplastics and montmorillonite with larger specific surface area was weaker than that formed by diatomite[35]In addition, the presence of pollutants will also affect the migration of micro/nano plastics, Rong et al[46]It was found that the presence of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) inhibited the migration of PS microplastics with negative surface charge, but promoted the migration of PS microplastics with positive surface charge.

2.2 Weathering fragmentation and biodegradation of micro/nano plastics in soil

2.2.1 Weathering and crushing of micro/nano plastics

When micro/nano plastics accumulate in the soil environment, they will undergo weathering, crushing and biodegradation. Weathering and crushing mainly lead to changes in the physical and chemical properties of micro/plastics through mechanical wear, photooxidation, humidity and temperature changes (high temperature and freeze-thaw). Agricultural activities can cause mechanical collision and wear between micro/nano plastics and mineral particles in soil. The indoor simulation test verified that the abundance of microplastics produced by PE agricultural film in soil during mechanical wear increased exponentially[47]In the process of photooxidation, the surface of micro/nano plastics will first produce highly active free radicals and reactive oxygen species involved in free radical reaction. With the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups and the change of surface properties, weathering degradation will gradually proceed from the surface to the inside, resulting in cracks and fragmentation of micro/nano plastics, reduced elasticity, and release of soluble organic carbon and additives[31]When the heat absorbed by micro/nano plastics from the environment is greater than the chemical bond dissociation energy between molecular chains, thermal degradation will occur, and the weak sites will break randomly; The degradation rate increased with the increase of temperature[48]Due to the extrusion and grinding effect of confined space, PS microplastics produced1O2The degradation rate can reach more than 60 times of its degradation rate in aqueous solution[49]In addition, minerals, organic matter, pH of soil, disturbance of soil animals and chewing and crushing of soil will also affect the weathering and crushing of micro/nano plastics[50-51]Taking minerals as an example, clay minerals (kaolinite and montmorillonite) widely existing in soil can not only form heterogeneous aggregates with micro plastics, but also promote the generation of free radicals, thereby increasing the weathering and fragmentation of micro plastics[50]。

2.2.2 Biodegradation of micro/nano plastics

As mentioned above, microorganisms that degrade micro/nano plastics exist in soil and many animals (earthworms, Tenebrio molitor, wax moths, etc.), and these microorganisms can use micro/nano plastics as carbon sources. Microorganisms play an important role in the biodegradation of micro/nano plastics. It has been found that a variety of bacteria and fungi can degrade micro/nano plastics in soil, but the degradation cycle is long[52]For example, the weight loss of PE can be about 5.7% after the microbacteria isolated from the landfill soil is co cultured with PE for 3 months[53]; separated from oil contaminated soilRaoultella sp. After co culture of dy2415 strain and UV aged PE for 60 days, the weight decreased by 8%[54]Soil types drive microbial community changes, which in turn affect the degradation potential of micro/nano plastics. Previous studies have found that microorganisms cultivated in Lou soil in Northwest China have a stronger ability to degrade PBAT microplastics than those cultivated in red soil in South China, Chao Soil in North China and black soil in Northeast China. Further metagenomic analysis found that specific microbial groups enriched on the surface of PBAT and the abundance of PBAT hydrolase genes are the key factors driving the difference in PBAT degradation performance in different types of soils[55]The core process of microbial degradation of micro/nano plastics is the secretion of various functional enzymes, such as esterase, lipase, keratinase and other hydrolases, as well as alkane monooxygenase, laccase and other enzymes, which have the potential of plastic degradation. The ability of microorganisms to degrade specific plastics in soil can be improved by improving the expression activity of microbial enzymes[56]Under the action of various enzymes, micro/nano plastics will be decomposed into monomers and small molecular products, and finally degraded into Co2And H2O[57]。

2.2.3 Changes of surface morphology and properties of micro/nano plastics in soil

During the weathering and degradation of micro/nano plastics, the surface morphology and physical and chemical properties changed significantly. For example, cracks and holes appear on the surface, roughness increases, specific surface area increases, carbonyl and other oxygen-containing functional groups increase, hydrophobicity decreases, and micro/nano plastics with smaller particle size are formed[22,47,58]. Wen et al[59]Through the indoor aging simulation experiment, it was found that the surface of PS nano plastic (331.9 ± 10.3 nm) was wrinkled, the particle size was reduced, the stability was reduced, and the hydrophilicity was enhanced after UV and ozone aging. Yang et al[22]In the soil covered with plastic film for a long time, it was found that compared with the plastic film used, the weathered and degraded film microplastics had increased roughness, decreased hydrophobicity and increased oxygen-containing functional groups. By using fluorescent dyes to dye the living bacteria, dead bacteria and extracellular polymers on the surface of the micro plastic and combining with laser confocal microscope observation, it was found that a large number of living bacteria would be distributed on the surface of the PE micro plastic after exposure to the air environment above the tidal zone for 3 months[60]Zhangchenjie et al[61]Through the field burying experiment, it was found that the adhesion bacteria on the surface of PE film micro plastic in the coastal environment were mainly cocci, bacilli and filamentous bacteria.

2.3 Release and transformation of micro/nano plastic additives in soil

Plastic products add different functional additives (such as plasticizers, flame retardants, stabilizers and antioxidants) to meet various specific needs. Plasticizers and flame retardants are the two most concerned additives, such as plasticizers phthalates (PAEs) and flame retardants organic phosphates (opes) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)[62]The amount of additives is also different according to different purposes and uses. The content of plasticizer is generally 10%~70%. In some PVC products, the content of plasticizer can be as high as 80%, while the content of flame retardant is usually 12%~18%[63]Vincoff et al[64]Through literature search, 2712 kinds of known plastic additives were listed. It was found that more than 150 kinds of additives were carcinogenic, and about 90% of the additives lacked the data of carcinogenic end point. The combination between plastic additives and plastic polymers is mainly non covalent bond (van der Waals force, hydrogen bond, etc.), which leads to the dynamic release of additives in the process of weathering and degradation of plastics into micro/nano plastics[65]The pollution problem of plastic additives has widely existed in farmland soil. Taking PAEs plasticizer in agricultural film as an example, Zhang et al[66]It was found that the use of agricultural plastic film in China was 2.5286 million tons in 2017. It was estimated that 91.5 tons of PAEs were released from agricultural film in its life cycle. Most of the PAEs released from plastic film were degraded and removed, while the PAEs released from greenhouse film were accumulated in vegetables. Xu et al[67]The contents of microplastics and PAEs in typical agricultural production areas were analyzed. It was found that there was a significant positive correlation between microplastics and PAEs in soil, which confirmed that microplastics and PAEs had the same source. By measuring the content of PAEs in soil, the degree of soil pollution by microplastics could be indirectly reflected.

2.4 Interaction between micro/nano plastics and pollutants in soil

Micro/nano plastics have the characteristics of large specific surface area, strong chemical inertia and easy migration, which are very easy to adsorb heavy metals and organic pollutants in the soil, and further affect the migration and distribution of pollutants in the soil environment. Micro/nano plastics adsorb heavy metals and organic pollutants mainly through hydrophobic interaction, surface complexation, electrostatic interaction and intermolecular forces (including π - π interaction, van der Waals force and hydrogen bond). Electrostatic interaction, surface complexation and hydrophobic interaction dominate the adsorption of micro/nano plastics and heavy metals, while the adsorption of organic pollutants by micro/nano plastics is mainly through hydrophobic interaction. In addition, intermolecular forces and electrostatic interactions can also affect the adsorption of organic pollutants by micro/nano plastics[68]The interaction between micro/nano plastics and heavy metals and organic pollutants is affected by the properties of micro/nano plastics (type, particle size, concentration, aging degree, specific surface area, crystallinity, etc.), the properties of pollutants (chemical form and concentration, etc.) and environmental conditions (pH, organic matter content, salinity, etc.). Yang et al[69]The effects of different soil environmental factors on the adsorption of Cu by microplastics were investigated2+The adsorption of Cu by different microplastics was compared2+Differences between. The results show that polyamide (PA) has a good effect on Cu2+The adsorption capacity of the polymer is much higher than that of PE, PS and pet, which is related to its polar functional groups. Citric acid significantly reduced the effect of PA on Cu2+Small molecular organic acids compete with Cu to adsorb Cu on the surface of the microplastics2+Decrease. The effect of PE microplastics on Zn in forest soil containing more organic matter was better than that in cultivated soil2+More adsorption[70]. Yangjie et al[71]Different pH and different concentrations of cations (CA) were compared2+And Mg2+）And fulvic acid on the adsorption of tetracycline by microplastics. The adsorption capacity of tetracycline from large to small is PE, PS and PA; The existence of fulvic acid and cation hindered the adsorption of tetracycline by PE microplastics, and the effect was more significant with the increase of concentration. Microplastics adsorbing pollutants are easily desorbed and released by environmental factors, especially in acidic environments such as human gastrointestinal fluid. Zhang et al[72]In the simulated acid gastrointestinal fluid, the adsorption of Cu2+PS vs Cu2+The desorption capacity is higher than that of simulated seawater and pure water system. At the same time, the increase of temperature increased the Cu content2+Desorption on PS surface. Wang et al[73]It was also found that the desorption of thicloprid (THI) by microplastics in simulated intestinal fluid was 1.30-1.36 times that in pure water. Bakir et al[74]It was found that the desorption intensity of persistent organic pollutants on PE and PVC surfaces under simulated intestinal conditions was 30 times higher than that in seawater. Intestinal surfactants, low pH and high temperature could promote the desorption of pollutants from microplastics. These studies show that the carrier function of microplastics makes it easier for pollutants to be transferred to animals and human bodies, resulting in potential hazards.

2.5 Microbial colonization and biofilm characteristics of micro/nano plastics in soil

In soil, the surface of micro/nano plastics is encapsulated by bioactive molecules such as soluble organic matter, protein, metabolites and extracellular polymers to form an "eco corona"[75]The adhesion of surface biomolecules creates conditions for the formation of biofilms on the surface of micro/nano plastics. Micro/nano plastic surface can provide adsorption sites for microorganisms, so that microorganisms can survive on its surface for a long time and form microbial communities significantly different from soil. During the long-term natural succession process, the micro/nano plastic surface is wrapped by biofilm, and finally forms a unique micro domain environment, which is called "plastisphere"[76-77]The diversity of biofilm community on the surface of micro/nano plastics is less than that of the surrounding soil due to the biased enrichment of micro/nano plastics to some microorganisms; At the same time, its selective enrichment of microorganisms makes the biofilm on the surface of micro/nano plastics show different functional characteristics. For example, the biofilm on the surface of micro/nano plastics will have high levels of organic matter decomposition genes, nitrogen fixation genes, etc., and will also be enriched with relatively more micro/nano plastics degrading microorganisms, potential pathogenic bacteria, viruses and antibiotic resistance genes[77-78]. sun et al[79]The bacterial "plastic rhizosphere" on polyethylene microplastics in 99 regions of China was compared with adjacent soil microbial communities. It was found that compared with soil bacterial communities, the "plastic rhizosphere" had higher abundance of actinobacteria and Firmicutes, but lower abundance of Pseudomonas, acidobacteria, bacillus and bacteroidea. The "plastic interface" may play an important role in the degradation of micro/nano plastics, the transmission of potential pathogens, and the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes, but related research is in the ascendant. In the future, more attention should be paid to the dynamic change process of the "plastic interface" on the surface of soil micro/nano plastics.

2.6 Absorption and transport of micro/nano plastics in soil by plants and animals

2.6.1 Absorption and transport of micro/nano plastics in soil by plants

Higher plants are an important part of terrestrial ecosystem and the starting point of biological accumulation. Micro/nano plastics accumulated in farmland can inevitably interact with crops. Micro/nano plastics have been successively confirmed to be absorbed by vegetables (beans (Vicia faba), carrots (Daucus Carota L.), Cucumis sativus L., celery (Lepidium sativum), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), onion (Allium cepa), cereals (Oryza sativa L.), corn (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum, etc.) and fruits (Fragaria ananassa))[4,80]Other terrestrial plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana and taraxacum asiaticum can also absorb and transport micro/nano plastics[81-82]Transpiration is the main driving force of micro/nano plastic transport in plants[9]The characteristics of micro/nano plastics (particle size, morphology, surface charge, etc.), environmental conditions (temperature, humidity and light), growth medium, exposure concentration, and plant species will affect the absorption of micro/nano plastics by terrestrial plants[4]. sun et al[81]It was found that the nanoplastics with negative surface charge were more easily absorbed by plant roots than those with positive surface charge. Liruijie et al[83]The absorption of different concentrations of PS nanoplastics (200 nm) by wheat under different temperature and humidity conditions was investigated. It was found that the growth environment of high temperature and low humidity (30 ℃ and 55% relative humidity) was more conducive to the absorption of PS nanoplastics by wheat than that of low temperature and high humidity (10 ℃ and 85% relative humidity). With the increase of exposure concentration, the accumulation of PS nanoplastics in wheat increased significantly in proportion. At the same time (14 d) and concentration (10 mg · kg-1）The concentrations of PS nanoplastics in wheat and lettuce roots were 5.2 and 15.2 μ g · g, respectively-1[12]。
Micro/nano plastics must cross several physiological barriers, such as cuticle, epidermis, cortex, endothelium and Kjeldahl zone, in order to reach the vascular tissue and transport to the stem. Particle size is an important factor affecting the entry of micro/nano plastics into plants. For example, 25 nm PS nanoplastics can enter root (onion) cells through endocytosis and be detected in the nucleus[84]， 200 nm PS nanoplastics can be absorbed by crop root tips and new lateral root fissures[9,12]The 2 μ m PS microplastics can enter the agricultural object through the crack at the lateral root connection[9]The discontinuous region (root tip and lateral root fissure) of the Kjeldahl zone in plant roots is an important way for micro/nano plastics to enter the root vascular system. Foliar absorption is another way for micro/nano plastics to enter plants. The results showed that PS nanoplastics with particle size ranging from 22 nm to 200 nm could enter crops through pores[11,85]The micro/nano plastics that enter wheat will eventually enter edible parts such as grains and vegetable leaves[86-87]。
The quantification and transformation of micro/nano plastics in plants is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the transmission process and mechanism of micro/nano plastics, and is an important basis for assessing the transmission risk of micro/nano plastics to the ecosystem and food chain. Li et al[88]Cucumber tissues exposed to 50 nm PS nanoplastics were subjected to alkaline hydrolysis. The nanoplastics were extracted by centrifugation and ultrasonic separation, and analyzed by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (py GC-MS). Luo et al[12]The lanthanide complex doped PS nanoplastics (200 nm) with time-resolved fluorescence characteristics was used to overcome the interference of plant spontaneous fluorescence. By detecting the content of rare earth Eu in plants and converting it with the content of nanoplastics, the accurate visual tracing of nanoplastics in agricultural objects was realized. Hao et al[89]Will have continuous fluorescence characteristic Cr3+Doped zinc gallic acid nanoparticles were synthesized into PS nanoplastics, which could be traced under UV lamp. The absorption of PS nanoplastics by Arabidopsis thaliana was quantitatively studied by using gallium (GA) contained in the nanoparticles. At present, most studies only focus on the absorption of micro/nano plastics by crops at seedling stage. Studying the transport, distribution and surface characteristics of micro/nano plastics in plants at different growth stages is the key to accurately assess their food security and food chain transmission risks. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the dynamic transport and accumulation process of micro/nano plastics in plants in the future.

2.6.2 Absorption and transport of micro/nano plastics in soil by soil invertebrates

Micro/nano plastics are easily ingested by soil invertebrates. Take earthworms as an example, Meng et al[90]The feeding of earthworms on microplastics (PE, PLA, PBAT (polybutylene adipate terephthalate)) with different particle sizes (20-648 µ m) was investigated through anatomy. The results showed that the intake of microplastics by earthworms had nothing to do with their particle size, but the excretion of microplastics was different. The proportion of microplastics with small particle size (20-113 µ m) in earthworm intestines increased significantly compared with other particle sizes (from 8.4% to 18.8%)[90]The intake of 10 μ m microplastics was more likely to accumulate in earthworms, while the intake of 1 μ m microplastics was more likely to be excreted by earthworms[91]Compared with petroleum based pet microplastics, bio based PLA biodegradable microplastics were more easily broken and decomposed in the digestive tract of earthworms, and their excretion half lives were 45 h and 9.3 h, respectively[92]Most of the micro/nano plastics fed by invertebrates will be discharged from the body, while the micro/nano plastics in the body are mainly accumulated in the digestive system[93,94]Microorganisms in the intestines of soil invertebrates can degrade large plastics, and the resulting nanoplastics can penetrate the intestinal wall. The PS microplastics accumulated in the intestines of Tenebrio molitor may be further decomposed into smaller nanoplastics and eventually gradually degraded in the glands[95]。

3 Ecological effects of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system

Soil plant system is a complex, diverse and dynamic surface ecosystem. Compared with marine and other aquatic ecosystems, the effects of micro/nano plastics on soil plant system are relatively less studied. Micro/nano plastics with different particle sizes and types have a series of effects on soil plant system. For example, changing the physical and chemical properties of soil, changing the carbon/nitrogen cycle and greenhouse gas emissions, affecting the growth of plants and the development of soil invertebrates, and promoting the succession of microbial communities in soil（Figure 2）。
Figure 2 Ecological effects of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system

Fig. 2 Ecological effects of micro- and nano-plastics in soil-plant systems

3.1 Effects of micro/nano plastics on soil physical and chemical properties

The accumulation of micro/nano plastics in soil will change soil physical and chemical properties, affect soil aggregate stability, soil bulk density, soil porosity, soil aeration, and change soil pH, soil organic matter (especially soluble organic matter (DOM)) and soil nutrient availability[14]The effects of different types of micro/nano plastics on the stability of soil aggregates are quite different. Polyester fiber (PES) micro plastics can significantly reduce the content of soil water stable aggregates, while polyethylene (PE) micro plastics have no significant effect[96]In addition, PES promoted the formation of large aggregates (>1 mm) in soil, and PES could enhance soil water holding capacity and keep water saturation at a high level for a long time[96]Soil porosity is greatly affected by the concentration of microplastics. By increasing soil aeration and porosity, various types of foamed and fragmented microplastics increase soil pH[97]However, some scholars have put forward opposite views, such as Dong et al[98]It was found that soil pH decreased with the increase of PS and PTFE microplastics concentration, and the effect of small-size microplastics was greater than that of large-size microplastics. The reasons for the different effects may be related to the shape of the micro plastic and the type of polymer. In addition, micro/nano plastics have different effects on different types of soil. The study found that PE and PVC microplastics affected the soil water content, specific gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit, plastic index, optimal water content, maximum dry density and other parameters. Among them, sandy soil was most affected by microplastics pollution, followed by cohesive soil, and silty soil was least affected by microplastics pollution, which may be related to the different force caused by different particle composition in different types of soil[99]。

3.2 Effects of micro/nano plastics on soil carbon/nitrogen cycle

The polymer skeleton of micro/nano plastics is rich in carbon, making it a potential contributor to soil carbon content[100]Soil carbon/nitrogen cycle is closely related to greenhouse gases, and the impact of micro/nano plastics on soil carbon/nitrogen cycle has attracted more and more attention. The results showed that micro plastic exposure significantly increased soil carbon storage, changed soil nitrogen pool composition, and increased soil CO2、CH4And n2O discharge[101-102]When micro plastics and biochar coexist, greenhouse gas emissions increase. Compared with PS microplastics alone, the CO of bagasse biochar and PS increased significantly2Bagasse biochar can provide nutrients for soil or more suitable microbial habitat by changing soil physical and chemical properties, such as releasing doc to soil[103]In paddy soil, the combined application of PE microplastics (0.5%) and hydrothermal carbon made the4The cumulative emissions increased by 32.6~83.5% compared with the control and hydrothermal carbon treatment alone[104]Microplastics increase the gene population related to carbon degradation (e.gabfA、sgaAndmanB）The number of methanogens increased by 41.1%;mcrA）It was slightly higher than that of methanotrophs (37.9%);pmoA、mmoXAndmxaF）The increase of Ch  2 emission in paddy soil was more significant than that in upland soil[102]Microplastics increased the abundance of functional genes encoding nitrite reductase (NIRS), which may be caused by2Key microbial driving mechanisms for significant increases in o emissions[101]Micro/nano plastics affect soil carbon/nitrogen cycle by changing soil physical and chemical properties, specific microbial community structure, and related enzyme activities, regulating soil carbon and nitrogen fixation potential, organic matter decomposition, nitrification and denitrification, and greenhouse gas emissions[74,105]。

3.3 Effects of micro/nano plastics on plants

The effects of micro/nano plastics on grains and vegetables in soil plant system have attracted much attention[4]Different types and concentrations of micro/nano plastics have an impact on plant growth. With wheat（Triticum aestivum）For example, the inhibition rate of PE on wheat seed germination was higher than that of PLA and PP, while the inhibition effect of PLA on wheat seedling growth was higher than that of PE and PP[106]In addition, the lower concentration (≤ 5 mg · L−1）The results showed that the root hydraulic conductivity increased by 80.6% to 117.0%; Concentration 200 mg · L−1PS treatment significantly reduced the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll a in wheat b， It decreased by 14.8% and 19.9% respectively. The hydraulic conductivity of roots, catalase activity of roots and shoots were reduced by 50.7%, 17.7% and 36.8% respectively[107]The different environmental conditions also affected the physiological effects of wheat on micro/nano plastics. In the high temperature and low humidity environment (30 ℃, relative humidity 55%), PS nano plastics could inhibit the growth of wheat roots and catalase activity in wheat stems and leaves-1）PS nanoplastics could significantly reduce the content of chlorophyll b in wheat, and significantly increase the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in wheat stems and leaves and the content of malondialdehyde in wheat roots; However, in low temperature and high humidity environment (10 ℃, relative humidity 85%), high concentration of PS nanoplastics significantly increased the content of malondialdehyde in wheat stems and leaves, but had no significant effect on chlorophyll content and antioxidant enzyme activity of wheat[83]The effect of polymer type on plant fresh weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and h was related to its functional groups2O2The influence of content is significant[108]In general, compared with nano plastics, micro plastics have stronger inhibitory effects on physiological, photosynthetic pigments and biochemical indexes of most plants[108]。
It is worth noting that in laboratory studies, the concentration of micro/nano plastic used in hydroponics and pot experiments (in mg · L-1Or Mg · kg-1The concentration is much higher than that in the real environment. At present, most studies focus on the effects of microplastics on individual morphology and physiology. Growth, nutrients, photosynthesis and antioxidant enzyme activities are some of the most concerned indicators[80,107]In recent years, research has begun to focus on the influence of micro/nano plastics on molecular scale (omics)[109], and the combined effects of micro/nano plastics and other pollutants on plants[110-111]It has been reported that when wheat was exposed to polyethylene and oxytetracycline at the same time, the carotenoid content and peroxidase activity in the leaves increased significantly, and the levels of various metabolites (including organic acids and sugars) also changed[112]When subjected to micro/nano plastic stress, plants can respond rapidly at the molecular, cellular, organ and physiological levels, regulate the expression of stress response genes and proteins through a series of signal molecules, and change their morphological and physiological characteristics to respond to and adapt to stress[113]At present, the research on the toxicity mechanism of plants under micro/nano plastic stress is still shallow, and the comprehensive use of multi omics technology to reveal the toxicity mechanism of plants under micro/nano plastic stress may be the focus of the research on the toxicity of micro/nano plastics to plants in the future.

3.4 Effects of micro/nano plastics on soil invertebrates

Micro/nano plastics attached or ingested by soil invertebrates have been proved to cause a variety of adverse reactions, including growth, behavior, and physiological reactions (oxidative stress, tissue inflammation, nerve damage, gene expression, and intestinal microbiota, etc.)[114]Most studies choose earthworms and nematodes as model organisms to explore the toxic effects of micro/nano plastics on soil invertebrates[115]The particle size and concentration of micro/nano plastics are the most frequently studied factors. With earthworms（Lumbricus terrestris）For example, the toxicity of microplastics with larger particle size to earthworms may be greater[116-117]Studies have shown that when earthworms are exposed to 10 mg · kg-1When polystyrene PS micro/nano plastics with different particle sizes (100 nm, 1 μ m, 10 μ m and 100 μ m) were used, the DNA damage caused by micro plastics was more serious than that caused by nano plastics[117]The results of meta-analysis showed that the concentration of micro/nano plastic in soil was higher than 1 g · kg-1Will reduce the growth and survival rate of earthworms[115]In addition, the shape and polymer type of micro/nano plastics are also important factors affecting the biological toxicity of earthworms; The effect of microplastic particles is greater than that of microplastic fibers, and the microplastics/nanoplastics containing chlorine and phenyl in their chemical structure are more toxic to them[115]Other soil invertebrates are also affected by micro/nano plastics. Yang et al[118]Study on Caenorhabditis elegans（Caenorhabditis elegans）When exposed to 100   nm PS nanoplastics (≥ 1   μ g · L-1）It induced severe lipid accumulation and increased the expression of MDT-15 and SBP-1, which encode two lipid metabolism sensors. When the concentration of PE microplastics in soil is 1 g · kg-1Collembola（Folsomia candida）Reproduction will be inhibited; The concentration is 5 g · kg-1PE significantly changed the intestinal microbial community of Collembola and reduced the bacterial diversity; Concentration up to 10 g · kg-1PE significantly reduced the reproduction rate of Collembola (70.2% lower than the control)[119]However, the impact of micro/nano plastics on soil invertebrates is not only because invertebrates ingest micro/nano plastics, but also because micro/nano plastics change the surrounding environment or are adhered to the body surface by soil invertebrates and cause physical damage to organisms[120-121]。

3.5 Effects of micro/nano plastics on soil microbial community composition and enzyme activities

Micro/nano plastic is a specific carbon source, which creates conditions for microbial growth. Micro/nano plastics can promote the growth of microbial communities in soil that can decompose and use such polymers, and inhibit the community abundance of some sensitive microbial groups through the release of toxic and harmful additives such as plasticizers, flame retardants and antioxidants, thus changing the community composition of soil microorganisms[105]Microplastics have an impact on the composition of soil root microbial community and destroy the beneficial plant microbial interaction system[122]. Zhu et al[123]The results showed that Proteus (51 3%) and actinomycetes (30. 1%) were dominant in the plastic flora. Microplastics with different polymer types have different effects on bacterial diversity and community structure. Under the same particle size (200 μ m) and concentration (2%, w/W), the damage degree of PE to bacterial richness and diversity in wheat rhizosphere was greater than that of (2%, w/W) PS or PVC[124]Compared with pet, PLA (2%, w/W) could rapidly produce metabolites and release additives, which caused significant changes in the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community[125]Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can hold PS nanoplastics to alleviate the direct damage of PS nanoplastics to lettuce roots and reduce the content of PS nanoplastics in edible parts of lettuce[126]。
Soil enzyme activity reflects the biochemical characteristics of soil. The existence of micro/nano plastics changed the physical and chemical properties of soil, released harmful additives, and then affected the soil enzyme activity. For example: PE and PVC microplastics could inhibit the activity of soil fluorescein diacetate hydrolase, but increased the activities of urease and acid phosphatase in soil[127]， PS nanoplastics significantly reduced the activities of dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and cellobiose hydrolase in alkaline soil[128]The effect of micro/nano plastics on soil enzyme activity is affected by the nature of micro/nano plastics (type, particle size, concentration, etc.) and soil environment. Liu et al[129]Through the meta-analysis of the results of 51 articles, it was found that PP micro/nano plastic could promote soil enzyme activity, while pet, PE and PS all inhibited soil enzyme activity. Low dose (<10%) of micro/nano plastic exposure could promote soil enzyme activity, and micro/nano plastic exposure to acidic soil and soil with plants could significantly improve soil enzyme activity.

4 Potential health risks of micro/nano plastics on agricultural product safety and food chain transmission

The main ways of human exposure to micro/nano plastics are skin contact, inhalation and intake. Ingestion of food contaminated by micro/nano plastics is an important way for micro/nano plastics to enter the human body[130-131]Agricultural products are one of the main food sources for human beings, and micro/nano plastic pollution in agricultural products will affect the safety of agricultural products. Micro/nano plastics can be transferred into the human body through the food chain and food web, causing potential health risks（Figure 3）。
Figure 3 Potential health risks of micro/nano plastics on agricultural product safety and food chain transmission

Fig. 3 Potential risks of micro- and nano-plastics on agricultural product safety and food chain transfer

4.1 Agricultural products accumulation and risk of micro/nano plastics

More and more evidence shows that micro/nano plastics exist in agricultural products such as crops, fruits, livestock and poultry meat, aquatic products, dairy products and agricultural and sideline foods[80,86,132⇓⇓ -135]In addition, some studies have also detected micro plastics in other foods, such as drinking water, salt, beer, etc[136-137]. Shi et al[135]The pollution of micro plastics in 12 kinds of food including agricultural products was investigated. The results showed that PP and PA micro plastics existed in most samples, such as potatoes, vegetables, dairy products and egg products. According to the per capita consumption of lettuce in China and the accumulation of micro plastics in the aboveground part of lettuce, the daily intake of micro plastics by each person in China is 115 μ G[138]. Zhao and you[139]Using extensive data collection and analysis, the intake of microplastics in 109 countries around the world was estimated. The results showed that Southeast Asia had the highest intake of microplastics in the world.

4.2 Food chain transmission and potential health risks of micro/nano plastics

Micro/nano plastics enter the food chain and food web through plant absorption and soil invertebrate feeding. Lwanga et al[140]The enrichment of microplastics in the "soil earthworm chicken" terrestrial food chain was reported. It was found that the abundance of microplastics in soil, earthworm manure and chicken manure were 0.87 ± 1.9, 14.8 ± 28.8 and 129.8 ± 82.3 per gram, respectively-1This study also found that micro plastics also exist in chicken gizzards, and eating chicken gizzards may lead to human intake of micro/nano plastics. Monikh et al[16]The nutrition transfer of nano plastics in the "plant insect fish" food chain was studied by using gadolinium (GD) - Doped Polystyrene PS and polyvinyl chloride PVC nano plastics (250 nm). It was found that micro plastics would accumulate in the leaves of lettuce, and then transfer to the mouth and viscera of insects. Finally, nano plastics mainly accumulated in the liver of fish, but no biomagnification effect was detected in both types of nano plastics in fish. Li et al[141]The nutrition transfer of PS nanoplastics in the "lettuce snail" food chain was studied by py GC Ms. the results showed that the nanoplastics could be transferred from lettuce to snail, and most of them were discharged into feces (>75%). Exposure of snails to concentrations up to 1000 mg · L-1After hydroponically cultured lettuce, only 28 ng · g of nano plastic was detected in snail soft tissue-1Although the content of nanoplastics decreased when transferred to higher trophic species, they still significantly inhibited the growth of snails. Recently, micro/nano plastics have been found in human carotid artery, thrombosis, placenta, testis and bone marrow, indicating that micro/nano plastics pollution in the environment has been widespread[142⇓⇓⇓-146]. Liu et al[147]In vitro studies revealed that nanoplastics may enter the brain and promote the accumulation of α - synuclein associated with Parkinson's disease. These studies show that the potential health risks of food chain migration of micro/nano plastics to higher trophic species cannot be ignored.

5 Conclusion and Prospect

Micro/nano plastics with various sizes, shapes and polymer types are widespread in agricultural soils. Micro/nano plastics can accumulate, migrate, weathering and degrade in soil, form "ecological crown" and biofilm on the surface, and form a complex "plastic interface" with pollutants and pathogenic microorganisms. Micro/nano plastics and the "plastic world" formed by them pose direct and indirect risks to soil and biological health, and may further affect human health. The process and risk of micro/nano plastics in soil plant system need more attention. Future research should pay more attention to the following six aspects, improve scientific cognition, promote technological innovation, and continuously improve the ability to solve the micro/nano plastic pollution and treatment of soil plant system.
(1) Carry out standardized methods for the separation and analysis of micro/nano plastic abundance or quality (especially below 20 μ m) in soil and animals/plants, and create a method system for the separation, identification and source apportionment of micron, submicron and even nano plastics, so as to make different investigation and research data comparable.
(2) Carry out multi-scale comprehensive and systematic research on the distribution, migration, transport and flux of micro/nano plastics in the soil environment, explore the compound pollution and biogeochemical process of micro/nano plastics in the soil plant system, and comprehensively evaluate, characterize and predict the long-term impact of micro/nano plastics on the quality of water and atmosphere environment, ecosystem security and climate change.
(3) To clarify the micro processes of micro/nano plastics absorption and transportation by animals and plants and food chain transmission in soil, including the genotypic differences and physiological mechanisms of micro/nano plastics absorption by animals and plants, and the dynamic tracing and accurate quantification of micro/nano plastics in animals and plants.
(4) To explore the soil ecotoxicology and ecological risk of micro/nano plastics and its methodology, including soil microbiome and biodiversity, soil microbial animal network, soil food web and long-term ecological risk assessment of micro/nano plastics at environmental concentration and field scale.
(5) Explore the ways and fluxes of exposure, intake, and transmission of micro/nano plastics in the food chain, and accurately assess the potential health risks of micro/nano plastics on agricultural product safety and food chain transmission.
(6) Research and develop the monitoring, resistance control and degradation technology of micro/nano plastics in farmland soil and food, and put forward the supervision methods and control measures for different micro/nano plastics according to the characteristics of farmland soil and the distribution characteristics of micro/nano plastics in different regions of China. Establish a micro plastic big data analysis and information intelligent management system for the regional soil crop system, and promote the formulation of corresponding standards, laws and regulations to ensure soil health, agricultural product safety and green and sustainable development of agriculture.

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