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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2025 , Vol. 37 >Issue 4: 593 - 611

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC240608

Review

Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Materials

  • Jiajia Jiang 1 ,
  • Junhu Zhao 2 ,
  • Qin Yu 3 ,
  • Tian Zhang , 1, 2, 3, *
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  • 1 School of Materials Science and Engineering，Wuhan University of Technology，Wuhan 430070，China
  • 2 School of Resources and Environmental Engineering，Wuhan University of Technology，Wuhan 430070，China
  • 3 School of Chemistry，Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences，Wuhan University of Technology，Wuhan 430070，China
*

†These authors contributed equally to this work.

Received date: 2024-06-21

  Revised date: 2024-10-10

  Online published: 2025-03-20

Supported by

Youth Funding Project of the "Young Thousand Talents Program" of the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee(40127002)

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Abstract

The sustained development of industry has brought enormous economic benefits，but it has also caused great harm to the environment. The excessive CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion are released into the natural environment，posing a threat to the environment and human health. So people are working hard to develop materials that can effectively capture CO2. At present，CO2 capture mainly occurs after the combustion of fossil fuels. According to the design standards for CO2 adsorbents，a variety of CO2 capture materials have been designed and developed，including solid adsorbents，liquid adsorbents，and multiphase adsorbents. The adsorption mechanisms of various adsorbents are also different，including adsorption，absorption，or a combination of both mechanisms. This review focuses on the capture performance，absorption mechanism，advantages and disadvantages of various common types of current adsorbents，and introduces amine solution absorbents，zeolite-based adsorbents，ionic liquids-based adsorbents，carbon-based adsorbents，metal-organic framework materials，covalent organic framework materials，metal-oxide materials，and biopolymer nanocomposites，respectively，with an outlook of the future development of CO2 adsorbent materials.

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 Current status and hazards of CO2 emissions

1.2 CO2 capture technology

1.3 Criteria for designing CO2 capture materials

2 CO2 capture materials

2.1 Amine solution absorbents

2.2 Zeolites based adsorbents

2.3 Ionic liquids absorbents

2.4 Carbon-based adsorbents

2.5 Metal organic framworks

2.6 Covalent organic frameworks

2.7 Metal oxide sorbents

2.8 Biopolymeric nanocomposites

3 Comparison and Prospect of Capture Materials

4 Conclusion

Key words： CO2 concentration; post-combustion CO2; capture; adsorption; capture materials; multiphase adsorbents

Cite this article

Jiajia Jiang , Junhu Zhao , Qin Yu , Tian Zhang . Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Materials[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2025 , 37(4) : 593 -611 . DOI: 10.7536/PC240608

1 Introduction

1.1 CO2 Emission Status and Its Hazards

"Peaking carbon dioxide emissions before 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality before 2060" is an important component of China's overall layout for ecological civilization construction. Investigations show that by mid-2020, atmospheric CO2 concentration had reached 416.5 ppm[1], and it is projected to increase to 570 ppm by the end of 2100[2]. As a greenhouse gas with abundant reserves, economic recyclability, and a long atmospheric lifetime[3], excessive CO2 concentration not only leads to severe climate issues such as prolonged droughts, major floods, hurricanes, acid rain, resource depletion, altered precipitation patterns, and glacier melting but also may reactivate ancient viruses trapped in ice, causing airborne diseases. Additionally, warmer conditions benefit organisms like mosquitoes, facilitating the spread of tropical infectious diseases such as malaria and ascariasis into colder regions, which significantly adversely affects ecosystems and biodiversity[1,4-5]. The main reason for the sharp increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration is fossil fuel combustion[1]. Although new energy sources currently promoted vigorously can alleviate global CO2 emissions to some extent, certain essential heavy transportation and industrial sectors remain difficult to decarbonize[6]. Data indicate that nearly 80%-85% of global energy demand is supplied by fossil fuels[5], so emitted CO2 continues to grow at an alarming rate. To protect the global climate and maintain economic market stability, it is necessary to conduct in-depth scientific research and develop economically efficient CO2 capture materials to reduce atmospheric CO2 levels[7].

1.2 CO2 Capture Technology

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is considered the most feasible technology currently available for reducing atmospheric CO2 concentrations[8]. Depending on the combustion method and gas stream composition, CO2 capture can be classified into pre-combustion capture, oxy-fuel combustion capture, and post-combustion capture[1,5]. Pre-combustion capture involves separating CO2 from biogas, natural gas, and syngas before combustion, thereby obtaining a hydrogen (H2)-rich clean fuel[9]. Oxy-fuel combustion capture refers to burning fuels in a pure oxygen environment, producing a high concentration of CO2 without nitrogen (N2) or nitrogen-containing compounds[9]. Post-combustion capture involves capturing and separating CO2 from flue gas containing CO2, water vapor (H2O), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Prior to CO2 capture, denitrogenation and desulfurization treatments are required[10], along with dust removal and cooling to prevent degradation of the capture materials[11]. A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of these three capture technologies is presented in Table 1.
表1 三种碳捕获技术的比较

Table 1 Comparison of three carbon capture technologies

CO2 capture technology Advantages Disadvantages
Pre-combustion capture The concentration of CO2 is high which makes it easy to capture Not applicable to existing power plants；high investment cost；a large amount of energy consumed for chemical solvent regeneration
Oxy-fuel capture The concentration of CO2 is high which makes it easy to capture；avoids the requirement of chemicals A large amount of pure oxygen needs to be provided；high investment cost；limited existing technical knowledge
Post-combustion capture Suitable for large new and existing power plants，without the need for upgrades and renovations；convenient maintenance High energy consumption of adsorbent regeneration；low CO2 concentration in flue gas
Post-combustion capture is currently the most common and only commercialized method[12]. This review focuses on materials for post-combustion CO2 capture, discussing their capture performance, mechanisms, advantages, and disadvantages based on developed materials with practical application potential.

1.3 Design Criteria for CO2 Capture Materials

Common methods for capturing CO2 include absorption and adsorption. Absorption is a technique that converts substances from vapor to liquid phase, involving mass transfer between two fluid phases, and includes physical dissolution and chemical binding. Adsorption is an adhesion phenomenon occurring between atoms, ions, or molecules and a material's surface, involving mass transfer between fluid and solid phases, including physisorption and chemisorption[10]. Both absorption and adsorption require ideal CO2 capture materials to meet the following criteria: (1) The CO2 adsorption/absorption capacity is closely related to the expected performance; (2) The capture material can be fully regenerated under relatively mild conditions; (3) The capture material exhibits high selectivity for CO2 in the presence of coexisting gases such as N2, methane, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor; (4) The capture material enables rapid CO2 adsorption/absorption and desorption; (5) The capture material maintains its microstructure and morphology during cyclic regeneration processes and withstands harsh operating conditions under certain circumstances; (6) The raw materials for the capture material should be inexpensive and readily available, and its synthesis route should be economically viable and energy-efficient[1,10,13].
At present, a variety of CO2 capture materials have been developed. Adsorbents with extensive applications and promising prospects include zeolites[3], amine solution absorbents[14], ionic liquid (ILs)-based adsorbents[15], carbon-based adsorbents[5], metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)[16], covalent organic frameworks (COFs)[17], metal oxide materials[18], and biopolymer nanocomposite materials[19], among others.

2 CO2 Capture Materials

2.1 Amine Solution Absorbent

Amine solution-based post-combustion CO2 capture technology is currently the most suitable technique for large-scale deployment[20]. Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by hydrocarbon groups. Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen atom, amines are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary, and sterically hindered amines[1,5,14]. Under dry conditions, primary and secondary amines react with CO2 to form carbamates, achieving effective CO2 fixation. Tertiary amines exhibit weaker interactions with CO2; however, under wet conditions, tertiary amines react with CO2 to produce chemically unstable bicarbonate species (see Figure 1a)[21]. When using amine solutions for CO2 capture, impurities must first be removed from the flue gas, followed by cooling the gas to a temperature between 40 and 60 °C. The gas then contacts the absorbent solution within the packed structure of the absorption tower. Subsequently, the solution is heated to allow steam stripping regeneration, after which the amine solution can be recycled. The general process flow for this decarbonization method using amine solutions is illustrated in Figure 1b[16].
图1 （a） 胺与CO2发生反应，（b） 胺洗涤工艺流程[14]

Fig.1 （a） Reaction of amine with CO2；（b） Amine scrubbing process flow[14]

Industrially, the most widely used solvent is a 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) aqueous solution[14], which is cost-effective and demonstrates significant absorption efficiency. Other types of single-component amine solutions also exhibit good CO2 absorption capacity. Additionally, mixed absorbents have been developed to combine the positive characteristics of different solvents while overcoming their drawbacks, thereby reducing the cost of CO2 capture[22]. Gao et al.[20] conducted pilot-scale experiments using a 30 wt% MEA-methanol mixed solvent for absorption under both lean and rich CO2 loading conditions. The results indicated that under various CO2 loading conditions, its absorption rate was higher than that of the 30 wt% MEA aqueous solution. Hamidi et al.[23] formulated a CO2 absorbent consisting of a 90% (MDEA+MEA) aqueous mixture plus 10% 1,5-diamino-2-methylpentane (DAMP) as an absorption enhancer, achieving an absorption capacity of 0.657 mol CO2/mol solution.
However, in practical production applications, amine solution absorbents also have many obvious disadvantages, such as difficulties in cyclic regeneration, severe equipment corrosion, high energy consumption, and the high volatility of amine solutions can pose threats to air quality and workers' health[24]. To overcome these drawbacks, porous solid materials with tunable amine content have been successively developed. Amine-based porous adsorbents are mainly prepared through two methods: physically impregnating amines into the pores of porous materials and covalently anchoring amines onto the surface and interior of porous materials[21], which will be discussed in detail in the following sections.

2.2 Zeolite-Based Adsorbents

Zeolite-based materials are a class of microporous solid materials characterized by high surface area, high stability, and chemically tunable structures. They exhibit high selectivity for CO2 and show potential for high recyclability at low temperatures[3]. Pure-silica zeolites strictly belong to molecular sieves, whose CO2 adsorption performance highly depends on the topological structure of the zeolite framework and the pore size of the zeolite. The interaction between CO2 and pure silica is mainly governed by dispersion forces; due to differences in topology, CO2 molecules preferentially occupy active site positions within the zeolite framework during adsorption[25]. In addition to pure-silica zeolites, major types of zeolites used for CO2 capture include cation-exchanged zeolites, amine-modified zeolites, zeolite composites, and zeolite-templated carbon (ZTC) (Figure 2)[3].
图2 常用于CO2捕获的4种沸石的部分结构

Fig.2 Partial structures of four zeolites commonly used for CO2 capture

Zeolites with framework-external cation exchange prepared via ion exchange, impregnation, or in situ growth have been extensively studied in practical applications. By adjusting the type of introduced cations, pore size and flexibility, electric field gradient, and acid-base strength, cation-exchanged zeolites can maintain high selectivity for CO2 in various mixed gas streams[12]. Sun et al.[26] investigated the potential of eight transition metals (cobalt, nickel, zinc, iron, etc.) exchanged into SSZ-13 zeolite for effective CO2 capture, finding that cobalt-metal exchanged zeolite exhibited the highest CO2 uptake under ambient pressure, reaching 4.49 mmol/g. This was attributed to the π-electron feedback formed between CO2 and transition metal cation sites (Fig. 3a). Amine-modified zeolites involve grafting amines into the internal pores, channels, or cages of zeolites, making them organic-inorganic composites. These materials improve CO2 adsorption performance while effectively overcoming the issue of reduced adsorption capacity under high environmental humidity[3,27]. Karka et al.[28] synthesized adsorbents by loading 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% PEI (polyethyleneimine) onto zeolite 13X at different temperatures (Fig. 3b) and studied their CO2 adsorption properties through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The study revealed that the optimal temperature for CO2 capture was 75 °C with an optimal loading of 60 wt%, resulting in a CO2 adsorption capacity of 1.18 mmol/g. The main issues with amine-modified zeolites include partial pore blockage and amine leaching loss. To address these challenges, four primary solutions are illustrated in Fig. 4.
图3 （a） SSZ-13金属交换沸石骨架捕获CO2[26]，（b） 13X-PEI吸附剂捕获CO2[28]

Fig.3 （a） CO2 capture by SSZ-13 metal-exchanged zeolite skeleton[26]；（b） CO2 capture by 13X-PEI adsorbents[28]

图4 胺改性沸石存在的问题及解决方法

Fig. 4 Problems and solutions of amine-modified zeolite

Zeolite composite materials are created by integrating additional materials into the parent zeolite to obtain materials that combine the properties of both the added components and the zeolite itself. Xiao et al.[29] combined mesoporous material NaX (FAU-type octahedral molecular sieve) with periodic mesoporous silica material MCM-41 to synthesize a micro-mesoporous NaX/MCM-41 composite material (Fig. 5a). Qasim et al.[30] fabricated a zeolite-5A@MOF-74 composite material by combining MOF-74 with zeolite-5A (Fig. 5b). Zeolite-templated carbon (ZTC) utilizes zeolites as rigid templates for the growth of porous carbon materials. Experimental results have shown that ZTC materials possess a significant narrow micropore volume that plays an important role in gas separation[3], and ZTC exhibits characteristics such as adjustable pore shapes at high temperatures, high porosity, and a robust framework, remaining highly stable under humid and acidic conditions[31]. Zhu et al.[32] introduced a Co-2-methylimidazole complex into Y zeolite using the dodecahedral ring as a source of Co and N, followed by carbonization and removal of the Y zeolite to obtain zeolite-templated carbon. The synthesis route is shown in Fig. 5c.
图5 （a） 沸石-5A@MOF-74复合材料结构示意图，（b） 构建NaX/MCM-41结构的仿真路线[29]，（c） Co/N-ZTC合成路径[32]

Fig.5 （a） Schematic structure of zeolite-5A@MOF-74 composite，（b） Simulation route to build NaX/MCM-41 structure[29]，（c） Co/N-ZTC synthesis pathway[32]

Table 2 is a partial data summary of selected zeolites for CO2 capture.
表2 部分沸石对于CO2捕获性能

Table 2 CO2 capture performance of some zeolites

Zeolites BET （m2/g） Temperature （K） Pore size （nm） Capacity （mmol/g） CO2/N2 selectivity Qst （kJ/mol） Ref
SAPO-34 402.2 278 0.3~0.8 22.7 2.6 36.74 33
Z4A 39 273 4.7 3.77 / 32.45 34
HZ4A-1-3 126 273 5.5 3.41 / 28.02 34
CS-ZX 561 298 / 4.23 / 10.4 35
3D-LTA 9.00 273 4 1.99 / 21.49 36
2D-LTA 12.66 273 4 2.31 / 44.52 36
Co（II）/SSZ-13 786.75 273 / 4.49 52.55 / 26
Ni（II）/SSZ-13 836.01 273 / 4.45 42.61 / 26
NZL-500 670.11 298 / 5.56 619.99 / 37
N-L 427.2 298 / 2.85 198.6 / 38
Modified Z-13X 16.58 298 1.2 5.50 / 40.681 39
KX 720.14 298 1.944 4.90 152 / 40
MCM41-450 259.10 298 / 2.275 / / 41
Na-ZK-4 687 273 / 4.86 49 40~45 42
Li-LSX 662.00 273 0.8~1.8 4.21 85.7 / 43
ZSM-5-25 404 273 0.5 2.22 77~149 / 44
HASM-5 417.63 298 2.647 4.27 / 54.27 45
Calcined Beads@2.0-3.0mm 586 273 5.4 4.5 / / 46
Zeolite X 735.88 273（303） 0.6 7.3（6.1） / / 47

2.3 Ionic Liquid Adsorbents

Ionic liquids (ILs) refer to a class of salts that are entirely composed of cations and anions and exist in a liquid or molten state at room temperature[48], featuring low volatility, high polarity, excellent thermal stability, high conductivity, and recyclability; therefore, they have extensive applications in CO2 capture[49]. The structure of ILs is highly tunable, allowing the synthesis of functional ILs by adjusting their cationic and anionic structures or introducing functional groups into the structure[15]. Common types of anions and cations in ILs are shown in Figure 6.
图6 离子液体中（a）常见阴离子类型，（b）常见阳离子类型

Fig.6 Ionic liquids with （a） common anion types，（b） common cation types

Different combinations of anions and cations can achieve varying capture effects. Zhu et al.[50] investigated the application of a functionalized protonic ionic liquid ([DBUH+][Im-]) synthesized from the superbase 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) and imidazole for CO2 absorption, with an experimentally measured adsorption capacity close to 1 mol CO2/mol ILs (Fig. 7a). ILs have the drawback of high viscosity; using them directly for CO2 capture results in slow absorption efficiency. Therefore, encapsulating ILs within solid materials can overcome kinetic limitations while preserving their CO2 capture capability[51]. Santiago et al.[52] encapsulated amino acid ionic liquids (aa-ILs) within porous carbon capsules to obtain aa-ENIL materials, achieving an adsorption capacity of nearly 0.035 g CO2/g IL, which represents a significant improvement compared to pure ionic liquids (Fig. 7b).
图7 （a） [DBUH+][Im-]捕获CO2机理及示意图，（b） aa-ENIL捕获CO2示意图

Fig.7 （a） Mechanism and schematic diagram of CO2 capture by [DBUH+][Im-] CO2，（b） Schematic diagram of CO2 capture by aa-ENIL

Immobilizing ILs onto polymer supports allows for the synthesis of poly(ionic liquids) (PILs), which combine the characteristics of ionic liquids with the mechanical properties of polymers.[53] Some research results indicate that PILs generally exhibit higher CO2 adsorption capacity compared to their corresponding ILs.[54] Based on the linkage modes between cations, anions and the polymer, PILs can be classified as polycationic, polyionic, or zwitterionic polymers; based on the location of immobilized ions within the polymer chain segments, PILs can be categorized as main-chain or side-chain ion types (Figure 8). Tang et al.[55] prepared [VBMI][Cl] using 1-methylimidazole and 1-(chloromethyl)-4-ethylbenzene as raw materials. By adding 2,2'-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) into an acetonitrile solution of [VBMI][Cl], poly[1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-3-methylimidazole chloride] (P([VBMI][Cl])) was obtained (Figure 9a). Subsequently, porous P([VBMI][Cl]) materials with different pore structures were obtained using supercritical foaming technology. The testing results showed that the amorphous structure of the porous P([VBMI][Cl]) material was denser, exhibited high thermal stability, and achieved a maximum CO2 adsorption capacity of up to 2.36 mmol/g PIL. Sandra et al.[54] investigated the influence of polymer blends on gas absorption performance. In their experiments, two different polyols (PC and PG) were polymerized with ionic liquids (imidazole and phosphorus-based) and then blended in varying proportions (Figure 9b). The results demonstrated that all obtained PIL blends exhibited higher CO2 adsorption capacities compared to other PILs reported in the literature. Under conditions of 303.15 K and 10 bar, the PILPC95-PG5-Bmim blend performed best, achieving a CO2 adsorption capacity of 1.66 mmol CO2/g PIL.
图8 聚离子液体分类

Fig.8 Classification of poly ionic liquids

图9 （a） 多孔P（[VBMI][Cl]）合成示意图[55]，（b） 用不同多元醇与离子液体聚合制备共混物

Fig.9 （a） Schematic diagram of the synthesis of porous P （[VBMI][Cl]）[55]，（b） Preparation of blends by polymerization of different polyols with ionic liquids

2.4 Carbon-Based Adsorbents

Carbon-based adsorbents are widely applied in CO2 capture due to their high specific surface area, high porosity, and stable chemical properties (Fig. 10)[56]. Preparation methods of carbon-based adsorbents include direct carbonization, post-carbonization activation, sol-gel processes, and nanocasting. Generally, raw materials with high volatile organic compound content, high carbon content, and low ash content are preferable choices for producing porous carbon [7,10]. The adsorption of CO2 on carbon-based materials can be classified into physical and chemical adsorption. In physical adsorption, the interaction between the adsorbent and gas is governed by weak van der Waals forces; therefore, activation of the synthesized product is typically conducted to increase its surface area and porosity, thereby enhancing its capture capacity [1]. Vorokhta et al. [57] used furfuryl alcohol as a precursor and SiO2 nanoparticles as a hard template to prepare three-dimensionally ordered micro-mesoporous carbon (3DOmm), which was subsequently physically activated. The 3DOmm exhibited adsorption capacities of 3.19 mmol/g at 372 K (100 kPa) and 11.18 mmol/g at 298 K (2 MPa), along with excellent CO2/N2 selectivity (Fig. 11a). Ma et al. [58] activated carbon materials using K2CO3, obtaining porous carbons with abundant nitrogen functionalities (Fig. 11b). The optimal porous carbon fiber sample showed remarkably high CO2 adsorption capacities of 3.83 and 5.84 mmol/g at 298 and 273 K, respectively, together with rapid adsorption kinetics and high CO2/N2 selectivity.
图10 用于CO2捕获的碳基材料[56]

Fig.10 Carbon-based materials for CO2 capture[56]

图11 （a） 三维有序微介孔碳（3DOmm）制备流程[57]，（b） 以K2CO3为活化剂制备富氮多孔碳流程

Fig.11 （a） Process for the preparation of three-dimensionally ordered micro mesoporous carbon （3DOmm）[57]，（b） Process for the preparation of nitrogen-rich porous carbon using K2CO3 as an activator

Chemical adsorption generally refers to the functionalization of porous carbon materials with amine groups, leveraging the acidic nature of CO2 to enable acid-base interactions with the amine functional groups. There are two main methods for preparing amine-functionalized porous carbon adsorbents: amine impregnation and amine grafting[59-60]. Amine impregnation involves loading amine substances onto the surface or interior of porous supports without forming chemical bonds. Wang et al.[61] used tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) to impregnate hierarchical mesoporous carbon (HMC) as an adsorbent; within a water vapor content range of 0-15%, both the CO2 adsorption capacity and TEPA efficiency increased with rising water vapor content. Under conditions of 333 K, CO2/N2 (V/V=15:85) + 15 vol% H2O, the CO2 adsorption capacity reached a maximum of 1.67 mmol/g (Figure 12a). Due to its simple synthesis route and mild preparation conditions, amine impregnation offers significant advantages in practical applications. Amine grafting involves fixing amine groups onto porous supports via covalent bonds. Mirtha et al. grafted three types of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT-SD_DETSi, CNT-OH_DETSi, and CNT-COOH_DETSi) using N1-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl) diethylenetriamine (DETASi). Under conditions of 308 K and CO2/N2 (V/V=20:80), CNT-SD_DETSi exhibited the highest CO2 adsorption capacity of 0.43 mmol/g, followed by CNT-COOH_DETSi at 0.33 mmol/g, while CNT-OH_DETSi showed the lowest adsorption capacity of 0.17 mmol/g (Figure 12b). The study attributed the differences in adsorption performance among the three types of multi-walled carbon nanotubes to variations in DETSi group quantity and pore volume within the range of 1.5-6 nm. CNT-SD_DETSi had the highest group quantity and pore volume, whereas CNT-OH_DETSi had the lowest. Although amine-grafted carbon adsorbents are more complex to prepare, they offer stable performance and good thermal stability.
图12 （a） 以TEPA浸渍分层介孔碳捕获CO2[61]，（b） 胺接枝碳纳米管合成示意图[62]

Fig.12 （a） Impregnation of layered mesoporous carbon with TEPA to capture CO2[61]，（b） Schematic of the synthesis of amine-grafted carbon nanotubes[62]

Carbon-based adsorbents can be effectively classified according to the precursors of synthetic carbon materials (Table 3).
表3 不同前驱体合成碳材料对于CO2捕获性能

Table 3 CO2 capture performance of synthesized carbon materials with different precursors

Different precursors Exemple BET （m2/g） Temperature （K） Pressure （bar） Capacity （mmol/g） Qst （kJ/mol） Ref
Biomass-derived porous carbons ANKO1 1894 273（298） 1 7.18（4.81） / 63
SWC-derived AC 1085 298 1 2.63 14 64
ACPS600-K-4 2437 273 1 5.79 / 65
Synthetic resin-derived porous carbons NSOPC-1 1292 273（298） 1 7.04（3.88） / 66
UFC-600-3 1686 273（298） 1 5.42（3.53） 45 67
PPSC-650-2 1094 273（298） 1 3.64（5.13） 35~41 68
Synthetic polymer-derived porous carbons KOH-700 2155 273 1 6.23 26.5~29.2 69
K2CO3-800 1143 273 1 5.47 37.1 69
3DOmm 1462 273（298） 1 （20） 3.19（11.18） 18.9~29.2 57
Biopolymer-derived porous carbons LBAU5 1134 273 / 4.06 / 70
LHPC-700 1788 273（298） 1 8.2（4.8） 28.6 71
CHNH1∶2 2906 273 1 7.38 46.87 72
Graphene-derived porous carbons CuBTC/GO 1760 273（298） 1 9.59（5.33） 25.3~25.6 73
a-RGO-950 1316 273 1 3.36 27.42 74
T-GU-700-6 1032 273（298） 1 3.24（2.40） 12~33 75
Fossil resources-derived porous carbons IANC 2186 298 1 （35） 7.15（29.29） / 76
A-rNPC 2580 296 30 26.0 29.0 77
ARA 1590 298 4 7.56 23.0 78

2.5 Metal-Organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials constructed from metal ions/clusters and organic linkers connected via coordination bonds, featuring ultra-high specific surface areas. Due to their highly tunable pore sizes and properties, MOFs exhibit broad application potential in the field of gas separation[16]. The pores and channels within MOFs can reach nanometer and angstrom scales; during gas adsorption processes, CO2 is captured and stored by other molecules within these pores and channels[79]. The adsorption capacity of MOFs changes with variations in environmental temperature or pressure. To construct efficient MOF adsorbents, four feasible strategies are commonly employed: open metal sites (OMS), enhancing porosity, optimizing framework structures, and functional group modification[16,80].
The unsaturated metal sites with partial positive charges have a good affinity for CO2, which possesses a relatively large quadrupole moment and polarizability. These metal sites (OMS) typically act as Lewis acid sites, and the inherent rigidity of the framework makes the OMS more accessible throughout the adsorption-desorption process[80-81]. Kokcam-Demir et al.[81] found that under low-pressure conditions, CO2 capture using OMS-MOFs preferentially occurs through adsorption on the OMS. Tao et al.[82] prepared nanosized zirconium-based metal-organic framework (MIP-202) particles via seed-assisted hydrothermal post-synthesis (Fig. 13a), achieving a CO2/N2 uptake ratio of 65.2 at 298 K and 1 bar. Gaikwad et al.[83] synthesized a series of bimetallic UTSA-16 (Zn, X; X = Mg, Mn, Cu) metal-organic frameworks with different metal ratios using microwave irradiation (Fig. 13b). Experimental measurements revealed that materials synthesized under a Zn:X ratio of 7:2 exhibited enhanced CO2 adsorption capacities by 9%-18%, along with improved CO2/N2 selectivity.
图13 （a） MIP-202种子、MIP-202-p1和MIP-202-p2制备示意图[82]，（b） 双金属UTSA-16金属有机骨架合成示意图[83]

Fig.13 （a） Schematic diagram of the preparation of MIP-202 seed，MIP-202-p1[82]，and MIP-202-p2，（b） Schematic diagram of the synthesis of bimetallic UTSA-16 metal organic framework[83]

The adsorption performance of MOFs can also be enhanced by attaching amine functional groups or nitrogen-containing groups to the MOF framework. Introducing amine functional groups into the pore structure can create polar sites that interact with CO2[84]. Jun et al.[85] prepared TEPA solutions by dissolving 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 2.5 mmol of tetraethyldiphenylamine (TEPA) in toluene (40 mL) to modify a zirconium-based metal-organic framework (MOF-808) (see Figure 14a). The results showed that MOF-808-TEPA (2.0) exhibited the highest CO2 adsorption capacity (0.76 mmol/g at 298 K and 15 kPa), approximately 2.5 times that of the original MOF-808. Additionally, it demonstrated the highest CO2/N2 selectivity (846 at 298 K and 15 kPa), about 11 times higher than that of the original MOF-808. This was attributed to the low basicity of TEPA and its amino group loading, which led to higher CO2 adsorption capacity.
图14 （a） 用TEPA合成和修饰MOF-808，（b） 三种MOF异构体结构图

Fig.14 （a） Synthesis and modification of MOF-808 with TEPA，（b） Structures of the three MOF isomers

MOF materials have consistently attracted attention for their excellent structural stability and designability. The adsorption of CO2 by pure MOFs is based on physical adsorption via van der Waals forces; the kinetic diameter of CO2 is approximately 0.33 nm[86]. Therefore, appropriately controlling the size of micropores can effectively enhance the interaction between CO2 molecules and the framework. Generally, it is difficult to precisely control pore sizes within a narrow range. Zhang et al.[87] constructed three MOF isomers using CdⅡ, terephthalic acid (H2tp), and 3,6-di(pyridin-4-yl)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (dptz) at the same stoichiometric ratio. Among them, 1 and 2 are framework-chain isomers, while 2 and 3 are framework-topological isomers. 1 contains a doubly interpenetrating network (pcu topology) with one-dimensional ultramicropores, whereas 3 features a kag network with larger pores measuring 15 Å. Experiments have demonstrated that framework isomerism is a feasible approach for adjusting MOF pore sizes; therefore, appropriate MOF framework structures are also crucial for CO2 capture, as functionalized pore environments enable selective accommodation of specific gas molecules[88].
Table 4 shows data on CO2 capture for some MOFs.
表4 部分MOFs对于CO2捕获性能

Table 4 Performance of some MOFs for CO2 capture

MOFs BET （m2/g） Temperature （K） Pressure （bar） Capacity （mmol/g） CO2/N2 selectivity Qst （kJ/mol） Ref
Co-3-OADA / 273 1 2.02 48 34 89
Zn-3-OADA / 273 1 1.91 43 25 89
UTSA-16（Zn） 786.61 298 1 4.71 118 / 90
UTSA-16（Zn，Mn） 810.43 298（333） 1 5.28（3.76） 135（95） / 83
UTSA-16（Zn，Mg） 825.19 298（333） 1 5.56（3.95） 141（97） / 83
UTSA-16（Zn，Cu） 817.40 298（333） 1 5.13（3.60） 131（92） / 83
PAN/MIL-101 2657.7 343.96 1 2.48 38 31.88 91
NBC@MOF-99 553.4 298~303 1 2.9 / / 92
MOF-74（Ni） 1129 273（298） 1 8.29（6.61） 49 27~52 93
Cu-OATA / 273（298） 1 5.61（2.02） 43.8 25 94
CUT 802 273 1 2.53 34.2 30.15 95
Zr-MOF-808/NH2 2021 298 9 8.39 / 17.36 96
Ni（3-ain）2 790.1 298 1 3.73 26.3 31.8 97
CuBDC-NO2 523 298 1 2.40 28 20.2 98
MC-HUN-4 523 298 1 1.90 13.02 / 99
NaX 17.39 273 1.13 4.34 89.2 37.9 100
NUM-3a 2111.2 273（298） 1 4.56（3.35） 82.8（64.8） / 101

2.6 Covalent Organic Frameworks

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are an emerging class of porous crystalline materials composed of elements such as C, O, N, and B connected through strong covalent bonds. The Yaghi group[102-103] first synthesized COFs in 2005 and initially applied them to CO2 capture research in 2009 (Figure 15). The primary synthesis methods for COFs include solvothermal synthesis, ionothermal synthesis, microwave-assisted synthesis, and mechanochemical synthesis. To date, most COFs consist of two-dimensional building blocks assembled via π-stacking, with only a few based on three-dimensional frameworks[104], exhibiting characteristics such as low density, high porosity, and large specific surface area. The adsorption mechanisms of COFs for CO2 can be classified into physical adsorption and chemical adsorption. Based on the intrinsic properties of CO2 molecules, different topological structures of COFs lead to varying physical adsorption performance[105]. The pore size of COFs is highly tunable; by adjusting the pore size close to the kinetic diameter of CO2 molecules (3.3 Å), effective CO2 capture can be achieved[106]. Introducing functional groups into the pores of COFs can further enhance their CO2 capture capacity. Functional groups not only reduce pore sizes but also react with CO2, chemically fixing it through covalent bonding[17]. Depending on the structural units used to construct COFs, they are mainly categorized into three types: boron-based COFs, triazine-based COFs (CTFs), and amine-based COFs.
图15 COF简要发展过程

Fig.15 COF brief development process

Boronic acid-based COFs are the earliest discovered covalent organic frameworks. The Yaghi group[103] classified seven COFs into three categories: two-dimensional structures with one-dimensional micropores, two-dimensional structures with one-dimensional mesopores, and three-dimensional structures with three-dimensional mesopores, studying their CO2 adsorption properties under low and high pressure conditions. Results showed that the CO2 adsorption capacity at low pressure mainly depends on the pore size of the COFs, while at high pressure, the CO2 uptake is primarily determined by the pore volume and SABET (surface area) of the material. Reversible B—O bonds exist in boronic acid-based COFs, which can lead to hydrolysis under atmospheric humidity; therefore, introducing specific functional groups can improve their water stability. Doping with different metal atoms can also significantly enhance CO2 capture performance[17].
The common synthesis method for CTFs involves the dynamic cyclotrimerization reaction of aromatic nitriles in the presence of molten ZnCl2. The dipole-dipole interaction between the triazine ring and CO2 molecules enhances the affinity between the framework and CO2[17]. Chen et al.[107] found that using 1,3,6,8-tetrakis(4-cyanophenyl)pyrene to construct a triazine framework followed by reaction with anhydrous ZnCl2 at 500 °C produced the target compound Py-CTF-500, which exhibited a CO2 selectivity (CO2/N2) of 45.3 (Fig. 16a). Zhu et al.[108] synthesized ionic covalent triazine frameworks (ICTFs) with different anions (Cl- and SCN-) through ionothermal polymerization; under conditions of 1 bar and 298 K, the ICTFs showed a CO2 separation capacity of 2.75 mmol/g (Fig. 16b). Compared with boron-based COFs, CTFs exhibit poorer crystallinity and structural integrity but possess excellent thermal and chemical stability, maintaining a stable CO2 capture capacity during repeated regeneration cycles[109].
图16 （a） 1，3，6，8-四（4-氰苯）芘构建CTFs结构示意图[107]，（b）微孔ICTF-Cl、ICTF-SCN和ICTF-Cl- SCN合成示意图，（c） COF （Me3TFB-（NH2）2BD）合成与CO2捕集示意图[111]

Fig.16 （a） Schematic diagram of CTFs constructed from 1，3，6，8-tetrakis（4-cyanobenzene）pyrene[107]，（b） Schematic diagram of the synthesis of microporous ICTF-Cl，ICTF-SCN，and ICTF-Cl- SCN，（c） Schematic of the synthesis of COF （Me3TFB-（NH2）2BD） and CO2 capture by COF[111]

Imin-based COFs are a class of COF materials prepared from Schiff bases, typically formed by the dehydration condensation reaction between amino groups (–NH2) and aldehyde groups (–CHO) to generate strong imine bonds (–C ̿         NH), which exhibit excellent thermal and chemical stability[110]. Dautzenberg et al.[111] prepared a COF (Me3TFB-(NH2)2BD) (Me3TFB: 2,4,6-trimethylbenzene-1,3,5-tricarbaldehyde; (NH2)2BD: 3,3'-diaminobenzidine) through dynamic exchange linkers (Figure 16c), achieving CO2 adsorption capacities of 1.12±0.26 and 0.72±0.07 mmol/g at 1 bar and 273 K and 295 K, respectively.
Table 5 presents data on CO2 capture for some COFs.
表5 部分COFs对于CO2捕获性能

Table 5 Performance of some COFs for CO2 capture

COFs BET （m2/g） Temperature （K） Pore size （nm） Capacity （mmol/g） CO2/N2 selectivity Qst （kJ/mol） Ref
JUC-610 2072 273（298） 1.5 2.26（1.44） / 21.9 112
Cu-anPPCs 2043 273（298） 0.5 7.6 / 40.6 113
UPC-6Li 5974.80 298 16.37 8.95 308 38.75 114
UPC-6Na 5608.74 298 17.31 7.60 235 34.82 114
UPC-6K 3759.12 298 14.67 5.67 255 37.98 114
Me3TFB-（NH2）2BD 1624 273（295） 2.7 1.12（0.72） 47 / 111
TpPa-NO2 398 273（298） 1.5 2.38（1.83） 125.23~34.87 36.26 115
COF-300-SO3H 428.42 298 5.29 6.23 393 39.71 116
TMFPT-COF 1407 273 1.86 1.54 19 34.1 117
TAPT-BP2+-COF 473.5 298 3.3 1.60 51.35 34.21 118
3D-TPB-COF-HQ 842 273 0.52 3.77 40 23.5 119
TBICOF 1424 273（298） 2.5 2.78（1.58） 40.3 42.8 120
CTF-TPM 2002 273（298） 1.13 4.84（2.87） / 26.9 121
NH2-UiO-66@Br-COF 966 273 2.5 3.86 24.08 117.2 122
Py-CTF-400 1515 298 1.24（1.77） 4.24 76.1 25.9 107
Py-CTF-500 1564 298 1.24（2.20） 3.49 61.5 23.1 107
TPP-CTF 1390 273（298） 1.11 9.77（5.02） 19 / 123
3D-ceq-COF 1148.6 273（298） 1.0（1.6） 3.69（2.02） 27.5 50.0 124
JUC-568 1433 273（298） 1.92 3.96（3.27） / / 125

2.7 Metal Oxide Materials

Alkali metal oxides and alkaline earth metal oxides can both chemically absorb CO2. The reaction chemical formulas are summarized as follows:

M x O + C O 2 ⇌ M x C O 3

the forward reaction is the CO2 adsorption process, which proceeds exothermically at low temperatures, causing the adsorbent to become carbonized. At equilibrium, the partial pressure of CO2 is below 0.001 bar[18], indicating that the CO2 adsorption proceeds nearly to completion. The reverse reaction represents the regeneration of the adsorbent and occurs under high-temperature conditions; the pure CO2 obtained from this reverse reaction can be further compressed for storage or utilization. Due to the significant temperature difference between the forward and reverse reactions, two consecutive reactors (a carbonator and a calciner) are typically employed when using metal oxides to capture CO2[126], enabling cyclic adsorption (Fig. 17). Considering economic viability and practical feasibility, commonly used metal oxides include CaO and MgO.
图17 固体吸附剂在相互连接的反应器中捕获燃烧后CO2的示意图[18]

Fig.17 Schematic diagram of solid adsorbents capturing post-combustion CO2 in interconnected reactors[18]

CaO-based adsorbents possess advantages such as strong CO2 adsorption capacity, rapid carbonation and regeneration rates, and abundant reserves. They react with CO2 to form CaCO3, making them suitable for CO2 capture in post-combustion processes at power plants and industrial cement production processes[127]. Several research teams have already validated the effectiveness of CaO adsorbents in capturing CO2 at pilot scale[128]. However, in practical applications, a layer of low-melting carbonate typically forms on the surface of the adsorbent, leading to sintering and affecting its recyclability; therefore, modification of the CaO adsorbent is required[129] to maintain its surface area and accessible pore volume. Available improvement measures include optimizing reaction operating conditions and preparing high-performance synthetic adsorbents. Researchers have found that the presence of steam in the reactor can enhance calcination rates and improve the porosity of the adsorbent, but it may affect the carbonation rate and mass transfer. Therefore, maintaining an appropriate steam content in the reactor is necessary[130-131]. For deactivated adsorbents, suitable activation methods can be selected. Sun et al.[132] compared the effects of three activation methods (hydration, simultaneous hydration/impregnation, and acidification) on the recyclability performance of a CaO/MgO (CaO/MgO=75 wt%/25 wt%) adsorbent (Fig. 18a), and the results showed that when reactivated by hydration or hydration/impregnation, the material exhibited good cyclic stability. After 40 cycles, the CO2 absorption capacities were 49.7 mol% and 52.8 mol%, respectively. Additionally, the adsorbent reactivated solely through hydration demonstrated a high adsorption capacity of 0.390 g/g because hydration creates more cracks and channels, effectively restoring the cyclic capture performance of the spent adsorbent. The experiment also found that introducing a filtration process during multiple acidification reactivation cycles of the spent adsorbent could effectively remove CaSO4, which significantly impacts the adsorbent. Mixing CaO with inert refractory materials can fundamentally improve the recyclability of CaO adsorbents. Hashemi et al.[133] studied the effects of Zr stabilizer content and fuel-to-metal oxide ratio on CO2 capture performance using a solution combustion synthesis method (Fig. 18b). The results indicated that 20 wt% CaZrO3 was most effective in maintaining the cyclic stability of the material. After 50 cycles under mild conditions, the adsorbent still exhibited an adsorption capacity of 8.8 mmol/g. Moreover, sol-gel methods can also be used to prepare CaO adsorbents, allowing easy control over particle size and surface area while maintaining good cyclic stability[134]. Additionally, coating CaO with stable oxides to form core-shell structured adsorbents can effectively mitigate sintering of the adsorbent[135].
图18 （a） 废吸附剂再活化过程[132]，（b） 锆稳定氧化钙吸附剂合成及吸附剂循环捕获能力测定[133]，（c） MgO-Na2CO3-KNO3吸附剂捕获CO2[139]

Fig.18 （a） Reactivation process of spent adsorbent[132]，（b） Synthesis of zirconium-stabilized calcium oxide adsorbent and determination of adsorbent cyclic capture capacity[133]，（c） CO2 capture by MgO-Na2CO3-KNO3 adsorbent[139]

The reactions of MgO-based metal oxides capturing CO2 generally occur within a temperature range of 200 to 400 ℃. The reaction produces MgCO3. The actual CO2 adsorption capacity is significantly lower than the theoretical value because the formed MgCO3 covers the material surface, hindering further adsorption. Therefore, physical or chemical modification methods are commonly employed during the synthesis of MgO-based adsorbents to enhance their CO2 adsorption capacity. These methods include preparing nanostructured MgO with a large specific surface area or introducing dopants into the material to promote the reaction between the adsorbent and CO2[136]. Guo et al.[137] used MgCl2·6H2O as the Mg precursor and prepared MgO adsorbents via solid-state reaction (SR), direct calcination (DC), direct precipitation (DP), and sol-gel methods (SG). It was found that the adsorbent prepared by the solid-state reaction method exhibited favorable structural properties (specific surface area reached 100.03 m2/g, total pore volume reached 0.67 cm3/g), good surface morphology, and excellent CO2 adsorption capacity (2.39 mmol/g). The solid-state reaction method provided abundant surface basic active sites for the material, which enhanced the adsorbent's absorption of CO2. Alkali metal nitrates are commonly used as dopants added to MgO-based materials. During CO2 capture, molten alkali metal nitrates can prevent the formation of solid MgCO3 on the material surface. The most commonly used nitrates are NaNO3 and KNO3, and alkali metal carbonates also demonstrate the ability to enhance the performance of MgO adsorbents[138]. Xiao et al.[139] found that the MgO-Na2CO3-KNO3 adsorbent exhibited rapid adsorption kinetics and high capture capacity under high-pressure conditions. In this material, Na2CO3 plays a crucial role in achieving a fast initial adsorption rate, while KNO3 effectively promotes the conversion of MgO. After 30 adsorption cycles at 400 ℃ and 2 MPa, the MgO conversion increased from 0.78 to 0.86, demonstrating good cyclic stability (Fig. 18c).

2.8 Biopolymer Nanocomposites

Bio-polymer nanocomposites are a class of CO2 capture materials composed of natural bio-polymers and nano-fillers, characterized by their renewable and sustainable properties[140]. Studied bio-polymers include cellulose, alginate, chitosan, starch, and plant proteins such as soy and corn protein[141], which possess unique functional groups (e.g., amino and hydroxyl groups) capable of interacting with CO2 molecules. The incorporation of nano-fillers aims to enhance the mechanical, thermal, and adsorption properties of the materials, increase surface area and porosity, thereby improving CO2 capture capacity[142]. Commonly used nano-fillers include graphene, carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs).
Cellulose is a frequently used biopolymer, which is often processed in industry to produce cellulose derivatives. During the synthesis of CO2 capture materials, chemical modification of cellulose or its derivatives is also required to adapt them to CO2 capture applications[143]. The main modification methods include the incorporation of nanoparticles or grafting functional groups. Zhang et al.[144] encapsulated zirconium-based MOF (UiO-66-NH2) nanoparticles within dense cellulose nanofibrils (CNF-COOH) through vacuum filtration (Fig. 19a). Acid-base interactions and electrostatic forces between UiO-66-NH2 and CNF-COOH led to an ideal interfacial morphology, with dispersed nanoparticles cross-linked by carboxyl groups of the cellulose matrix. The porous structure of UiO-66-NH2 provided rapid transport channels for CO2 and exhibited high CO2 selectivity. In the development of CO2 adsorbents, chemical functionalization of nanocellulose aerogels has also been investigated to enhance CO2 selectivity. Othaman et al.[145] modified nanocellulose using 3-(aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS), 3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyldimethoxymethylsilane (AEAPDMS), and N-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl)diethylenetriamine (DET3) respectively (Fig. 19b). Results showed that APTMS-NCC aerogel modified with the shortest chain amino silane exhibited higher CO2 uptake capacity (0.20 mmol/g) compared to unmodified NCC aerogel (0.10 mmol/g). Moreover, AEAPDMS-NCC aerogel grafted with mid-length chain amino silane demonstrated the highest surface area and thermal stability. Therefore, modifying NCC with low or medium chain length amino silanes or those containing appropriate nitrogen content can improve pore formation, surface area, and CO2 adsorption properties of the aerogels.
图19 （a） UiO-66-NH2与CNF-COOH结合生成复合膜用于CO2/N2分离[144]，（b） NCC及氨基-NCC气凝胶制备与应用[145]，（c） ZIF-8/PES复合膜结构示意图

Fig.19 （a） UiO-66-NH2 combined with CNF-COOH to generate composite membranes for CO2/N2 separation[144]，（b） Preparation and application of NCC and amino-NCC aerogels[145]，（c） Schematic structure of ZIF-8/PES composite membrane

Alginate and chitosan are two distinct natural biopolymers. Alginate contains abundant hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, which can chemically react with complementary groups (such as amine groups) or calcium ions[146]. Chitosan is a biopolymer obtained by deacetylation of chitin, consisting of linear polysaccharides composed of randomly distributed N-acetyl and deacetylated glucosamine units[147]. Alginate and chitosan are often used together to exploit their complementary electrostatic properties for producing adsorption materials with higher stability and durability. Zhang et al.[148] immersed metal ion-crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA) composite hydrogels in different polymer hollow fibers and converted them into rigid and dense MOF membranes via seed-assisted hydrothermal crystallization (Figure 19c), ultimately producing ZIF-8/PES composite membranes. Under mild conditions, SA easily forms hydrogels through crosslinking with various multivalent metal ions and can serve as rich metal sites for synthesizing MOF crystals on substrates; combining PVA with SA to form a composite significantly increases the density of chelated metal ions and enhances hydrogel adhesion, thereby solving the problem of membrane detachment from the hydrogel matrix. The composite membrane exhibited excellent gas separation performance with a H2/CO2 separation factor as high as 29, making it suitable for pre-combustion CO2 capture.

3 Comparison and Prospects of Capture Materials

Table 6 summarizes the advantages, disadvantages, and applicability of the eight CO2 capture materials introduced above.
表6 各类CO2捕获材料的优缺点

Table 6 Advantages and disadvantages of various kinds of CO2 capture materials

Materials Advantages Disadvantages Applicability
Amine solution absorbents High solubility and selectivity；high mass transfer coefficient；stable adsorption in humid environment；the techology is mature High volatility；high cost；high energy consumption；causing corrosion to equipment Suitable for most power plants and factories with high CO2 emission concentrations at present
ILs Negligible vapor pressure；high thermal stability；relatively non flammable；strong designability High viscosity；poor permeability；difficult exposure of active sites Suitable for environments with high flue gas temperatures
Carbon-based adsorbents High specific surface area；adjustable structure；high thermal stability；low adsorption heat；less affected adsorption performance under humid conditions Low adsorption capacity；poor adsorption selectivity；high energy consumption during the regeneration process Can function in low or medium low pressure environments
Zeolites based
adsorbents		 High specific surface area；adjustable pore design；high recyclability at low temperatures；low cost Low gas selectivity；significant reduction in CO2 adsorption at high temperatures；poor adsorption performance under humid conditions；average regeneration performance Can function under harsh conditions，such as low temperature environments；suitable for rapid adsorption
MOFs High specific surface area；high CO2 selectivity；large pore volume；high porosity Poor CO2 adsorption capacity under low pressure conditions；unstable adsorption under humid conditions；poor stability Suitable for stable environments and appropriately high ambient temperatures
COFs High specific surface area；high thermal and chemical stability；strong functional group adaptability；high CO2 selectivity Avergy regeneration performance；poor adsorption performance under humid conditions Suitable for CO2 capture under high pressure；maintaining stability in acidic，alkaline or high-temperature environments
Metal oxide
sorbents		 Superior adsorption effect；low cost of raw materials；synergistic effects can be produced when mixed with other materials High difficulty of regeneration；average effect of recycling；average thermal stability Further clarification is needed
Biopolymeric
nanocomposites		 Polymer raw materials are easily available；low energy consumption；strong structural designability；high specific surface area and porosity Avergy stability and durability；high costs of nanomaterials；poor selectivity Further clarification is needed
The biggest challenge in using amine blends for CO2 absorption lies in the difficulty of their absorption and desorption processes. Conventional absorption/desorption equipment is bulky, inefficient, and energy-intensive. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop methods that can reduce the energy demand of this process, such as flexibly utilizing the heat generated during CO2 absorption in amine blends or employing compact devices like microchannels for CO2 absorption within amine blends[22]. Additionally, issues such as amine degradation and amine volatility also warrant attention and require solutions[149].
Zeolites are synthesized from easily available and inexpensive raw materials, but the synthesis process requires extremely high energy consumption; therefore, more economical synthesis methods should be further developed. Zeolites are typically hydrophilic, making CO2 capture from humid environments or flue gases quite challenging. Additionally, the mechanism of CO2 capture by zeolites needs to be clarified, and the application of zeolite materials in different scenarios along with kinetic analysis, life cycle analysis, etc., should be conducted to promote the industrial development of zeolite adsorbents.
To achieve large-scale industrial applications of ILs in the CCS field, the focus should be placed on the development and research of functionalized ILs, including: in-depth studies of CO2 capture mechanisms by functionalized ILs, improving the applicability of functionalized ILs under various flue gas conditions, and developing low-cost functionalized ILs that are easy to regenerate[49]. Additionally, polyanionic liquid materials and functional ionic liquid membrane materials also show significant potential for CO2 capture[53].
Carbon-based adsorbents possess considerable potential for industrial applications, although they are still at an initial stage. Future development can focus on the following aspects: further enhancing the adsorption capacity of carbon-based materials, developing adsorptive materials with low production costs and regeneration heat, excellent hydrophobicity and regenerability, and exploring novel composite materials, such as metal hydroxide-impregnated carbon-based adsorbents and carbon nanocomposites[150-151].
For MOF materials, enhancing their chemical and thermal stability is essential. The poor chemical stability of MOFs is mainly due to the susceptibility of central metal ions to react with environmental substances; therefore, developing MOFs with more inert central metal ions could be considered[152]. How to increase the binding strength between metal ions and organic linkers and improve the number of linkers connected at metal nodes are key factors for improving thermal stability[153]. To enhance the competitive adsorption advantage of CO2 in binary mixtures (CO2/N2), it is necessary to develop MOF materials with high selectivity, which would offer greater economic advantages during large-scale operations[154]. MOFs are also commonly used as fillers in mixed matrix membranes, thus offering broad exploration potential in synthesizing polymeric membranes for gas separation[155].
COFs materials are attracting increasing attention from researchers. One of the reasons limiting the large-scale application of COFs in CO2 capture is the high cost of their synthesis monomers and the energy-intensive manufacturing processes; using biomass or other inexpensive precursors, low-temperature manufacturing techniques, and low-cost solvents could potentially reduce synthesis costs[105]. Further improvements in the performance of COFs under low CO2 pressure conditions are also needed, along with addressing the issue of competitive adsorption between COFs and other gases. Although less studied, three-dimensional COFs exhibit superior CO2 capture performance, making them a promising class deserving focused development.
Metal oxide materials and biopolymer nanocomposites are relatively new CO2 capture materials, and currently do not occupy a large share in the field of CO2 capture, so there is still significant room for development.
CCS technology involves the storage of CO2, which entails capturing CO2 from flue gas, transporting and compressing it, and ultimately injecting it in a supercritical or liquefied form into suitable underground formations at appropriate depths. Currently, geological sequestration projects for CO2 have been implemented on a small scale worldwide, and future efforts will focus on expanding storage capacity and enhancing the safety of CO2 storage[10]. Additionally, apart from using capture materials to fix CO2, with the gradual depletion of fossil fuels, the efficient and economical conversion of CO2 into reusable chemical substances may become an important criterion for evaluating the value of CO2 capture materials. Considerable research has already been devoted to this area, involving materials such as ILs, COFs, and MOFs, primarily aimed at reducing CO2 to synthesize hydrocarbons for use as fuels or chemicals, thereby enabling the reuse of CO2.

4 Conclusion

CCS is of great significance for economic development and ecological protection, and it is an essential path to achieve carbon neutrality. Starting from the current status and hazards of CO2 emissions, this paper reviews the widely applied CO2 capture materials, including solid sorbents, liquid sorbents, and multiphase sorbents, such as polymeric ionic liquid-based capture materials. The advantages and disadvantages of various CO2 capture materials are also analyzed, highlighting the key development directions for each type of material in the future.
Through analysis and summary, it is not difficult to find that CO2 capture technologies have achieved significant development. However, existing technological options all have certain disadvantages, which limit the large-scale industrial application of materials. In addition, facing the issue of ultra-high CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, persistent political and economic barriers, knowledge gaps, and lack of experience hinder the rapid development and implementation of CCS. Therefore, efforts are still needed to address current technical challenges, explore new CO2 capture technologies, and conduct large-scale development and deployment to tackle the survival challenges this environmental issue may pose to the health of Earth's ecosystem.

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