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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2025 , Vol. 37 >Issue 12: 1866 - 1876

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC20250604

Review

Construction Methods and Application Progress of Liquid-Like Surfaces

  • Yan Bao , * ,
  • Chuang Fu ,
  • Renhao Li ,
  • Wenbo Zhang , *
Expand
  • College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering （College of Flexible Electronics）， Shaanxi University of Science & Technology， Xi’an 710021， China
*（Yan Bao）；
（Wenbo Zhang）

Received date: 2025-06-13

  Revised date: 2025-07-13

  Online published: 2025-12-10

Supported by

National Natural Science Foundation of China(22378253)

Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi(2024JC-YBMS-122)

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Abstract

Liquid-like surfaces （LLS）， as novel bioinspired interfacial materials， form dynamic molecular brush interfaces through the covalent grafting of flexible polymers or alkyl molecular chains. This approach overcomes the limitations of traditional superhydrophobic surfaces （SHPS） and slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces （SLIPS）， which heavily rely on micro/nanostructures or external lubricants. The core advantage of LLS lies in the high mobility of its molecular chains， which significantly reduces contact angle hysteresis （CAH） and sliding angle （SA）， enabling droplet self-cleaning at minimal tilt angles or even on horizontal surfaces. This paper first elaborates on the liquid-repellent mechanism of LLS， which involves the use of flexible chains to mask substrate defects and reduce contact line pinning effects， thereby achieving dynamic droplet dewetting. Subsequently， it summarizes the three main types of LLS， including monolayers， polymer layers， and organic-inorganic hybrid layers， and analyzes the relationship between different structures and liquid-repellent performance. Next， the applications of LLS coatings in anti-icing， self-cleaning， graffiti resistance， anti-bioadhesion， directional liquid transport， anti-scaling， and membrane fouling inhibition are reviewed. Finally， the challenges faced by LLS coatings， such as mechanical durability and chemical stability， are discussed， along with future prospects for advancing multifunctional integration.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Mechanism of liquid-like surface

3 The construction method of liquid-like surfaces

3.1 The surface of a liquid-like monolayer

3.2 The surface of liquid-like polymers

3.3 The surface of liquid-like organic-inorganic hybrid

4 Applications on liquid-like surfaces

4.1 Anti-icing

4.2 Self-cleaning

4.3 Anti-fingerprint and anti-graffiti

4.4 Anti-biofilm adhesion

4.5 Liquid directional transmission

4.6 Anti-fouling

4.7 Mitigating membrane fouling

5 Conclusion and outlook

Key words： liquid-like surfaces; liquid repellency; flexible polymer brushes; coatings

Cite this article

Yan Bao , Chuang Fu , Renhao Li , Wenbo Zhang . Construction Methods and Application Progress of Liquid-Like Surfaces[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2025 , 37(12) : 1866 -1876 . DOI: 10.7536/PC20250604

1 Introduction

In recent years, with the continuous advancement of research on biomimetic interface materials, liquid-like surfaces (LLS) have garnered widespread attention as a novel design strategy for liquid-repellent surfaces[1-8].Unlike traditional air-mediated superhydrophobic surfaces (SHPS)[9-13],superoleophobic surfaces (SOPS)[14-15],and liquid-infused slippery surfaces (SLIPS)[16-18],LLS involves covalently grafting highly flexible polymer or alkyl molecular chains onto a smooth substrate surface to form a molecular brush interfacial layer with liquid-like properties.
This design concept offers the following significant advantages: First, LLS abandons the conventional construction paradigm of SHPS and SOPS, which rely on micro/nano-graded structures[19-20],thereby avoiding issues such as the complex preparation of surface structures and mechanical fragility[21-22].Second, by employing a covalently bonded molecular brush layer, LLS fundamentally addresses the instability of the air layer in SHPS and SOPS[23-24]and the interfacial failure caused by the easy loss of lubricants in SLIPS[25-27].Finally, the flexible molecular chains grafted onto LLS exhibit liquid-like molecular motion at room temperature, endowing the surface with an extremely low contact angle hysteresis (CAH)[28].This ultra-low interfacial energy barrier enables droplets on LLS to display exceptional fluidity[29-30],allowing them not only to slide spontaneously on surfaces with very small tilt angles but also to maintain motion even on horizontal surfaces, thereby effectively preventing droplet retention and contaminant adhesion. This molecule-based, liquid-like interfacial design provides a new approach for developing a new generation of durable, stable liquid-repellent coatings. In particular, its independence from surface micro/nanostructures and external lubricants makes large-scale industrialization feasible. It shows broad application prospects in areas such as anti-icing[31-35],self-cleaning[36-37],anti-graffiti[38-42],anti-biofouling[43-45],controlled liquid transport[46-47],anti-scaling[48-50], andmembrane fouling inhibition[51-52].
Currently, research on LLS preparation lags far behind that of SHPS and SLIPS. In particular, the unique dynamic dewetting behavior exhibited by LLS droplets has yet to be systematically elucidated in terms of its underlying mechanisms. Based on this, this article discusses the construction methods and applications of liquid-like materials. It first elaborates on the liquid-repelling mechanism of LLS and the sliding behavior of droplets on LLS; then summarizes material systems and preparation methods that exhibit liquid-like properties; next, it reviews the applications of liquid-like functional coatings in areas such as anti-icing, self-cleaning, anti-graffiti, anti-bioadhesion, droplet-directed transport, anti-scaling, and membrane fouling inhibition; finally, it offers a prospect on the challenges faced by LLS functional materials research, including insufficient durability and stability, as well as their prospects for industrial application.

2 Class-based liquid surface action mechanisms

Studies have found that under ambient temperature conditions, certain polymers that exist in a liquid state and exhibit high fluidity—such as branched alkylsilanes[53-54],polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)[55-57],perfluoropolyethers (PFPE)[58-59],and polyethylene glycol (PEG)[60-62]—when one end of their polymer segments is anchored to a surface, the remaining segments can freely rotate, bend, and stretch[63](Figure 1). This is because the flexible chains of PDMS and PFPE have lower rotational energy barriers compared to other types of polymers. Specifically, the Si—O—Si bond angle in the PDMS molecular backbone and the C—O—C bond angle in PFPE are 143° and 111°, respectively, which are larger than the C—C—C bond angle (109°) in conventional carbon-based polymers. Moreover, the Si—O bond length (1.63) is longer than the C—C bond length (1.53), and the larger bond lengths and angles provide more conformational freedom for intramolecular rotation[64]. These intrinsic properties enable one end of the polymer chain to be fixed to the surface, resulting in a low surface free energy and imparting liquid-like surface fluidity to the coating, thereby exhibiting characteristics of low CAH and low sliding angle (SA). Typically, the flexible macromolecules grafted onto LLS surfaces influence CAH in two ways. First, the high mobility of the grafted molecular chains masks chemical or morphological defects on the solid surface[65], which helps reduce the number of metastable states and the energy barriers between them. Second, the high degree of rotational freedom of the grafted molecular chains facilitates overcoming the energy barrier at the contact line during droplet movement, with the most characteristic feature being the extremely low CAH and SA exhibited for both polar and nonpolar liquids.
图1 类液体表面作用机制

Fig.1 Mechanism of liquid-like surface

3 Construction Methods for Class-like Liquid Surfaces

Depending on the preparation process, LLS construction methods can be categorized into three types: The first involves directly covalently grafting liquid-like molecules onto a flat substrate surface to form a liquid-like monolayer surface; the second involves incorporating liquid-like molecules into a highly cross-linked polymer to create a liquid-like polymer layer surface; and the third involves introducing liquid-like molecules into an organic-inorganic hybrid coating to produce a liquid-like organic-inorganic hybrid layer surface.

3.1 Class I liquid monolayer surface

Organic molecules with low-surface-energy functional groups at the terminal end, such as silanes[66-68],phosphonates[69-70],and carboxylates[71-72],are widely used in the preparation of superhydrophobic/superoleophobic surfaces. Under gas-phase or liquid-phase reaction conditions, these molecules can form dense monolayers on various smooth organic or inorganic substrates through a self-assembly process. However, because the functional groups on the coating surfaces formed by phosphonates and carboxylates are fixed, they exhibit solid-like properties, leading to a significant increase in CAH[73-74]. In contrast, due to the relatively longer bond lengths and bond angles of the Si—O bonds in silane structures, it is possible to prepare monolayers with low packing densities, which exhibit unique “liquid-like” properties on the coating surface[75]. This property significantly reduces the CAH of the coating, enabling water and low-surface-tension liquids (such as alkanes) to easily slide off its surface, thereby demonstrating excellent liquid-repellent performance. As shown in Fig. 2a, Hozumi et al.[76]first achieved an LLS with a low CAH on aluminum surfaces. They used bis((tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylsilyloxy)methylsilane, forming a coating on aluminum with a thickness of only 1.1 nm; water and hexadecane both exhibited low CAH, and the coated droplets could slide off the surface with only a slight tilt. In addition, this coating also exhibits strong corrosion resistance. Hozumi et al.[77]also achieved such an LLS on various metal substrates using the cyclic methyl-terminated organosilane 1,3,5,7-tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4H), which demonstrates excellent liquid-repellent properties against water and low-surface-tension organic liquids.
图2 类液体单分子层表面的构建示意图[76,79-80]

Fig.2 Schematic diagram of the construction of a liquid-like monolayer surface[76,79-80]

In addition to small-molecule organosilanes with branched structures, this LLS property can also be achieved using polymer-based PDMS and its analogs[78].This is because PDMS segments have an extremely low glass transition temperature, allowing them to remain highly mobile at room temperature. As shown in Figure 2b,Singh et al.[79] prepared LLS by heating liquid polymethylhydrogensiloxanes (PMHSs) at 60 ℃. This method is not only applicable to silicon substrates but also to various metal substrates, and the resulting coating exhibits low CAH and SA for a wide range of organic droplets. As shown in Figure 2c,Wooh et al.[80] proposed a simple UV-irradiation-based method in which PDMS terminated with trimethylsilyloxy groups is grafted onto a TiO2 surface, successfully achieving LLS properties. The resulting monolayer not only significantly enhances the long-term stability of the substrate but also improves its hydrophobicity and self-cleaning performance. Moreover, this technology exhibits excellent versatility and can be widely applied to various metal oxide substrates.
This method involves grafting molecules with low surface energy and high fluidity onto the substrate surface via covalent bonds, thereby forming a liquid-like monolayer. This enhances the bonding force between the molecules and the substrate, making the monolayer more stable. At the same time, the molecules with low surface energy can reduce liquid infiltration on the surface, allowing droplets to easily slide off the coated surface. However, there are certain limitations in the preparation method of this coating, such as stringent reaction conditions; more importantly, this type of liquid-like monolayer is typically applicable only to specific substrates[75,81]..

3.2 Class liquid polymer surface

Although liquid-like monolayers exhibit outstanding liquid-sliding performance, their coating durability is somewhat limited. Since these coatings consist of only a few nanometers thick film, they are prone to degradation or other forms of wear over long-term use, thereby affecting their performance stability. To address this issue, a transparent antifouling coating called “NP-GLIDE” has been developed through molecular engineering and interface design. By combining perfluorinated compounds with highly adhesive polymers (such as polyurethane and epoxy resins), this coating successfully mimics and achieves the unique properties of LLS[82-83], with a design that integrates SLIPS technology and the characteristics of liquid-like monolayers, enabling its broad application to various substrates.
As shown in Figure 3a, Liu et al.[84] combined oligomeric polyols (P1) containing multiple hydroxyl groups in their molecular segments with PFPEs that have a single terminal hydroxyl group, and mixed the resulting combination with a diisocyanate dimer (HDID) in a tetrahydrofuran solution. The resulting mixture was then coated onto a glass plate to form a film, which was cured at 120 ℃ for 12 hours, ultimately yielding a functional coating. This coating exhibited excellent performance: water and hexadecane could slide rapidly over its surface without leaving any traces. Even when the coating surface was subjected to abrasion, its liquid-repellent properties remained stable. Moreover, moderate heating can enhance the mobility of the PFPE segments, further improving the dynamic dewetting behavior of the coating and endowing it with outstanding LLS performance. In addition to PFPEs demonstrating LLS performance, Liu et al.[85] also successfully achieved similar performance by using PDMS segments as the low-surface-energy component. As shown in Figure 3b, they first grafted PDMS-COCl onto P1 to obtain P1-g-PDMS, thereby embedding PDMS within the substrate. Subsequently, P1-g-PDMS was dispersed in acetonitrile or dimethyl carbonate at room temperature to form a precursor solution containing P1-g-PDMS micelles. After adding HDIT, the solution was cast onto a glass slide and cured at 120 ℃ for 12 hours, ultimately yielding a PU coating with embedded PDMS. They suggest that after the coating dries, PDMS forms a brush-like structure on the surface, and that the PDMS nanodomains dispersed throughout the substrate can replenish the PDMS brush layer upon surface abrasion, thereby maintaining the "liquid-like" properties of the coating. In addition, this coating exhibits high transparency, is suitable for a variety of substrates, and provides excellent antifouling and corrosion-resistant properties. Even after repeated abrasion, the coating continues to maintain superior antifouling performance, demonstrating exceptional durability and practicality.
图3 类液体聚合物表面的构建示意图[84-87]

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of the construction of a liquid-like polymer surface[84-87]

However, such “NP-GLIDE” coatings typically require high curing temperatures and long reaction times, which limits their application on heat-sensitive substrates. To address this issue, the research group developed an “NP-GLIDE” coating that can be rapidly cured under UV irradiation at room temperature[86].The preparation process is illustrated in Figure 3c: First, PDMS with hydroxyl groups at its termini reacts with oxalyl chloride to produce PDMS-COCl. Next, PDMS-COCl and ethyl isocyanatoacrylate (IEM) are used to modify P1 polyol, introducing both PDMS segments and double-bond functional groups, thereby preparing a UV-curable “NP-GLIDE” coating. To further enhance the coating’s durability, they modified HDIT with hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), yielding a crosslinking monomer containing three double-bond functional groups. When this monomer is combined with a photoinitiator and subjected to just 5 minutes of UV irradiation, a transparent coating with outstanding antifouling performance is obtained. SA tests confirmed that various organic liquids effortlessly slide off the coating surface without leaving any residue, demonstrating exceptional liquid-repellent properties. To overcome the limitations of high-temperature and UV curing methods, as shown in Figure 3d, Luo et al.[87] developed an “NP-GLIDE” coating that cures at room temperature. This system grafts silane coupling agents onto the molecular chains of a polyurethane prepolymer, creating potential crosslinking sites. During film formation, the silane groups in the polyurethane chains react with moisture in the air, enabling in-situ crosslinking and curing, and ultimately forming a dense coating structure. The resulting coating exhibits multiple superior properties, including low SA for a variety of liquids, as well as outstanding durability and chemical resistance. In addition, the coating forms strong interfacial bonds on a wide range of substrates, demonstrating excellent adhesion.
This "NP-GLIDE" coating employs molecular topological structure design to form a highly cross-linked polymer network, and utilizes an interface dynamic regulation strategy to control the grafting density of flexible chain segments (Fig. 3e),thereby successfully overcoming the engineering bottlenecks of LLS. Its curing method provides solutions for various application fields, marking a critical leap in the transition of passive antifouling coatings from conceptualization to industrial implementation.

3.3 Class of liquid organic-inorganic hybrid surfaces

Due to the complex synthesis processes often involved in creating liquid-like polymer surfaces and the typically poor wear resistance of these organic polymer materials, their application in certain fields is limited. However, liquid-like organic-inorganic hybrid coatings prepared via the sol-gel method can effectively address this issue. This preparation method is simple and easy to implement, making it another core strategy for producing such functional coatings.
As shown in Figure 4a, Zhang et al.[88] introduced PDMS into octa(3-glycidyloxypropyl) polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (GPOSS) by reacting GPOSS with PDMS-NH2. Under UV irradiation, the 3-glycidyloxypropyl groups of GPOSS undergo cationic ring-opening polymerization, imparting both flexibility and high cross-linking density to the polymer. The resulting coating exhibits excellent flexibility and wear resistance; its antifouling performance remains unchanged even after 500 bending cycles or 200 cycles of abrasion with steel wool. As shown in Figure 4b, Zhang et al.[89] prepared an organic-inorganic hybrid coating via a stepwise sol-gel strategy. At room temperature, the reaction between epoxy and amino groups forms a highly cross-linked epoxy-siloxane hybrid coating. Due to the unique combination of siloxane nanoclusters and a polymer network, the resulting coating exhibits ceramic-like hardness and polymer-like flexibility. Moreover, the use of a stepwise strategy to prepare multifunctional hybrid coatings resolves the conflict between high hardness and flexibility in coatings. The above studies indicate that this type of organic-inorganic hybrid coating facilitates the structural design and performance tuning of coatings, which is conducive to developing hybrid coatings with both superior mechanical properties and liquid-repellent performance. Such coatings are expected to find applications in foldable displays, the marine industry, and other fields.
图4 类液体有机-无机杂化表面的构建示意图[88-91]

Fig.4 Schematic diagram of the construction of a liquid-like organic-inorganic hybrid surface[88-91]

When addressing the diversity of marine biofouling and the complexity of attachment mechanisms, a combination of multiple antifouling strategies is crucial for synergistically enhancing the antifouling performance of silicone coatings. As shown in Figure 4c,Chen et al.[90]prepared epoxy-zirconia nanoparticles via the sol-gel method, where zirconia serves as the core to impart the required high hardness to the coating, and zwitterionic groups enhance its antibacterial properties. Subsequently, hyperbranched polysiloxanes were introduced into the highly cross-linked Zr-O-Si network via epoxy-amine curing reactions, endowing the coating with a degree of flexibility. At the same time, the coating exhibits outstanding optical transparency and mechanical strength; after 100 bending cycles, the coating remains intact, demonstrating excellent flexibility and adaptability to various substrates. As shown in Figure 4d,Sun et al.[91]grafted benzothiazole, which possesses antibacterial properties, onto the polymer via the sol-gel method and combined it with the highly cross-linked Zr-O-Si network to synergistically optimize the coating’s anti-microbial fouling performance. In addition, the coating exhibits high transparency and excellent mechanical properties while demonstrating a unique balance of rigidity and flexibility.
This sol-gel–prepared liquid-like organic-inorganic hybrid coating is typically easy to fabricate, and the coating exhibits ceramic-like hardness and polymer-like flexibility. As a multifunctional coating that integrates mechanical performance, environmental stability, and biological resistance, it holds significant application potential in fields such as foldable displays, flexible and wearable electronics, protective coatings for marine engineering equipment, and underwater optical devices.

4 Applications of Class L Liquid Surfaces

4.1 Anti-icing

Icing poses a serious threat to aerospace, power transmission, and transportation infrastructure. Traditional anti-icing technologies rely on energy-intensive active heating or environmentally harmful antifreeze agents. LLS, through dynamic interfacial wetting regulation and low surface energy design, serves as a sustainable ice-repellent surface that reduces ice adhesion strength, offering a new solution for passive anti-icing. As shown in Figure 5,Su et al.[92]used the sol-gel method to construct a densely packed structure of hollow silica nanospheres (HSNs) and formed a penetrative bonding layer via co-condensation of perfluoropolyether silanes. The ultra-low ice adhesion strength of the coating (LSHC) stems from the dual effect of the nanoscale roughness of the HSNs and the molecular migration of PFPE segments, which weakens the mechanical interlocking between ice and the surface. At -20°C, the icing delay time of this coating reaches 593 s, significantly longer than the 17 s for bare aluminum (BA) and the 67 s for the control sample (HSHC). At a tilt angle of 10°, the ice layer can spontaneously shed, demonstrating excellent anti-icing performance. Shen et al.[93]used polyurethane acrylate (PUA) as an elastic matrix and formed a gradient crosslinked network by co-curing methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) with PFPE. This coating significantly reduces ice adhesion strength, decreasing the ice adhesion strength on glass surfaces from 217 kPa to 12 kPa, and maintaining it at 30–40 kPa after 20 icing/deicing cycles—better than some previously reported smooth coatings. These liquid-like surfaces can greatly reduce the adhesion of ice to the surface, allowing frost or ice covering the surface to be easily removed by gravity or gas blow-off alone, indicating that this type of coating holds broad application prospects in the field of anti-icing and provides a new research direction for the development of anti-icing technologies.
图5 类液体表面在防结冰中的应用。（a） HSHC和LSHC涂层的防冰机理图[92]；（b） BA、HSHC和LSHC涂层的冰冻结过程效果图[92]；（c） BA、HSHC和LSHC涂层冰黏附力的对比图[92]；（d） 冰在裸玻璃和光滑涂层表面的黏附强度[93]；（e） 冰在光滑涂层上的黏附强度随结冰循环的变化[93]

Fig.5 The application of liquid-like surfaces in anti-icing. （a） Anti-icing mechanism diagrams of HSHC and LSHC coatings[92]； （b） effect diagram of the ice freezing process of BA， HSHC and LSHC coatings[92]； （c） comparison chart of ice adhesion force of BA， HSHC and LSHC coatings[92]； （d） the adhesion strength of ice on bare glass and smooth coating surfaces[93]； （e） the variation of the adhesion strength of ice on smooth coatings with the freezing cycle[93]

4.2 Self-cleaning

In recent years, superhydrophobic surfaces have been extensively studied for their applications in self-cleaning, but a trade-off exists between their self-cleaning performance and durability, which limits their practical application[94].In contrast, LLS exhibits excellent droplet-slippery properties, enabling it to easily remove dust and other contaminants adhering to the surface, thereby achieving self-cleaning. As shown in Figure 6, Zhong et al.[95] prepared a polyhydroxy prepolymer using modified castor oil and employed PDMS-OH as a low-surface-energy antifouling agent. After high-temperature curing, they obtained a bio-based, transparent, smooth, liquid-repellent coating that can remove particulate contaminants from the surface by simply adding water droplets, leaving no residue and demonstrating outstanding self-cleaning performance. Liu et al.[96] grafted (perfluorooctyl)ethyl methacrylate (FMA) onto a rigid polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane framework. Due to the crystallization of fluorinated alkyl side chains on the coating surface, the resulting coating exhibits an extremely low surface tension and maintains excellent self-cleaning performance even under extreme conditions at high temperatures of 160 ℃ or low temperatures of -70 ℃. Moreover, when the coating is subjected to simple heat treatment at 80 ℃, the mobility of the fluorinated side chains imparts a degree of self-healing capability.
图6 类液体表面在自清洁中的应用。（a） 类液体涂层的制备过程示意图[95]；（b） 类液体涂层的自清洁效果图[95]；（c） MAPOSS-co-PFMA的制备及其侧氟链的部分结晶示意图[96]；（d） MAPOSS-co-PFMA涂层低附着力、自愈合、耐高低温和自清洁效果图[96]

Fig.6 Applications of liquid-like surfaces in self-cleaning. （a） Schematic diagram of the synthesis of liquid-like coatings[95]； （b） self-cleaning effect diagram of type liquid coating[95]； （c） preparation of MAPOSS-co-PFMA and partial crystallization diagram of its side fluorine chain[96]； （d） effect diagram of low adhesion， self-healing， resistance to high and low temperatures and self-cleaning of MAPOSS-co-PFMA coating[96]

4.3 Fingerprint-resistant and anti-graffiti

Anti-fouling materials with superior liquid-repellent properties are undergoing extensive and in-depth research due to their great potential in fingerprint resistance and anti-graffiti applications. Such materials can typically be applied to touch screens of electronic devices to prevent fingerprints, oil stains, and other contaminants from adhering to the screen, thereby providing a cleaner and smoother user experience. As shown in Figure 7,Gao et al.[97]dissolved dimethylsiloxane copolymer (PHMS-301) and vinyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-V) with different molecular weights in n-hexane at varying ratios, then sequentially added an inhibitor and a catalyst. After thorough stirring, a precursor solution was obtained, which was brushed onto various substrates. The coating was cured by UV irradiation at room temperature for approximately 3 minutes. This coating is applicable to a wide range of substrate surfaces and exhibits excellent liquid-repelling performance against water-based inks, oil-based inks, ethanol, and other liquids. Moreover, even after repeated cycles of curling, unfolding, and graffiti removal, the coating retains its excellent performance, indicating outstanding flexibility and durable anti-graffiti properties. Based on differences in the curing method, Zhong et al.[98]used hydroxyl-terminated hyperbranched polyester (HBPE) and hexamethylene diisocyanate trimer (HDIT) as crosslinkers, with PDMS-OH as a lubricant. After thorough mixing and heating, the mixture was cast onto substrates such as glass slides and cured at 120 ℃ for 1 hour to form an anti-fouling coating. Due to the coating's highly crosslinked network, it exhibits strong repellency to oily inks: ink droplets on the coating surface readily contract into discrete droplets and can be easily wiped away. After 300 cycles of writing and erasing, the coating still retains its ability to cause ink droplets to contract. In addition, artificial fingerprint fluids also form discrete droplets rather than continuous contamination, indicating that the coating possesses excellent anti-graffiti and fingerprint-resistant properties.
图7 类液体表面在防涂鸦及耐指纹中的应用。（a） 防涂鸦涂层的形成机理图[97]；（b） 在玻璃基材上的防涂鸦效果图[97]；（c） 油墨在裸玻璃和经涂层处理的玻璃表面的收缩痕迹和经纸巾擦拭后的效果图[98]；（d） 油墨分别在50、100、150、200、250和300次书写和擦除循环后的表面收缩状态[98]；（e） 人工指纹液在裸玻璃和经涂层处理的玻璃表面的收缩状态[98]

Fig.7 The application of liquid-like surfaces in anti-graffiti and anti-fingerprint properties. （a） Formation mechanism diagram of anti-graffiti coating[97]； （b） anti-graffiti effect drawing on glass substrate[97]； （c） the shrinkage marks of the ink on bare glass and coated glass surfaces and the effect drawing after wiping with paper towels[98]； （d） the surface shrinkage states of the ink after 50， 100， 150， 200， 250 and 300 writing and erasing cycles respectively[98]； （e） the contraction state of artificial fingerprint liquid on bare glass and coated glass surfaces[98]

4.4 Anti-biofilm adhesion

How to construct surfaces with long-lasting resistance to biofouling and biofilm adhesion is a core challenge in the field of biomedical materials[99].Studies have shown that LLS materials, owing to their unique surface chemical properties, exhibit significant application potential in this field, with PDMS-grafted LLS systems being particularly prominent. Compared with traditional SLIPS, PDMS-based LLS demonstrates more durable anti-adhesion properties against small-molecule metabolites, proteins, cells, and bacteria. Chen et al.[100]constructed a biomimetic interface on a glass substrate by covalently grafting PDMS, thereby achieving both liquid lubricity and solid stability; this coating exhibits a remarkable inhibitory effect on biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This is attributed to the dynamic liquid–liquid interfacial properties of the PDMS brush, where continuous conformational restructuring of the PDMS chains generates an energy barrier that disrupts the adhesion mechanisms of biocontaminants, making it difficult for biomolecules to establish stable contact interfaces. To further expand functionality, as shown in Figure 8,Ji et al.[101]achieved synergistic enhancement of antibacterial performance through a covalent cross-linking system involving hydroxyl-terminated polysiloxane (PQMS) and quaternary ammonium salts (QAs). This coating exhibits a significant bacteriostatic rate against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and maintains long-term stability even after repeated abrasion, owing to the low surface energy of PQMS, which inhibits bacterial adhesion, and the QAs enriched on the surface, which inhibit bacterial growth by contacting and disrupting microbial cell membranes.
图8 类液体表面在抗生物膜黏附中的应用。（a） PQMS、多元醇、HDIT的化学结构式及形成PU-PQMS涂层后对抗生物膜黏附的机理图[101]；（b） PU-PDMS和PU-PQMS涂层对大肠杆菌和金黄色葡萄球菌的抗菌效果图[101]；（c） PU-PDMS和PU-PQMS涂层对大肠杆菌和金黄色葡萄球菌的抗菌率[101]

Fig.8 The application of liquid-like surfaces in anti-biofilm adhesion. （a） The chemical structural formulas of PQMS， polyols and HDIT and the mechanism diagrams of anti-biofilm adhesion after the formation of PU-PQMS coating[101]； （b） antibacterial effect diagrams of PU-PDMS and PU-PQMS coatings on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus[101]； （c） the antibacterial rates of PU-PDMS and PU-PQMS coatings against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus[101]

4.5 Liquid directional transport

Directional liquid transport technology holds significant application value in fields such as microfluidics, biosensing, and water collection; however, its performance is often limited by issues like reduced efficiency due to droplet residue or secondary contamination. While traditional surfaces (such as SHPS or SLIPS) can achieve a certain degree of droplet manipulation, they tend to fail under dynamic conditions due to wear of the surface structure or loss of lubricant. In recent years, a new approach to addressing this issue has emerged through the synergistic design of LLS with anisotropic structures or surface energy gradients. As shown in Figure 9,Huang et al.[102]covalently grafted PFPE onto a silicon substrate, endowing the surface with liquid-like properties and significantly reducing interfacial friction and CAH. In comparison with a rigid perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane (PFOS) coating, neither coating exhibited droplet residue during low-speed droplet transport; however, as the speed increased, the PFOS-coated surface showed a growing number of residual droplets, whereas the PFPE-coated surface still exhibited no droplet residue even at a transport speed of 140 mm/s. This indicates that highly flexible molecular chains can effectively suppress droplet residue, thereby promoting lossless droplet transport. Zhang et al.[103]used PDMS to prepare an LLS with gradient grafting density on a silicon substrate via vapor diffusion, significantly reducing droplet adhesion and similarly achieving this performance.
图9 类液体表面在液体定向传输中的应用。（a） 分别在涂层表面接枝全氟辛基硅烷（刚性结构）和全氟聚醚（柔性结构）示意图[102]；（b） 液滴在全氟辛烷硅烷（刚性结构）和全氟聚醚（柔性结构）表面微观运输机理图[102]

Fig.9 The application of liquid-like surfaces in liquid directional transmission. （a） Schematic diagram of grafting perfluorooctane silane （rigid structure） and perfluoropolyether （flexible structure） on the coating surface respectively[102]； （b） microscopic transport mechanism diagram of liquid droplets on the surface of perfluorooctane silane （rigid structure） and perfluoropolyether （flexible structure）[102]

4.6 Anti-scaling

Surface scaling is a widespread issue across numerous industrial sectors (such as water treatment and energy production), leading to reduced equipment efficiency, accelerated corrosion, and a host of operational problems that ultimately shorten equipment lifespan. To address this challenge, the development of highly efficient anti-scaling surface technologies has become a critical issue urgently needing resolution in industry. Research indicates that fluorocarbon coatings with low surface energy are best suited for anti-scaling applications. However, the study by Chen et al.[104]challenges this conventional understanding. As shown in Figure 10, they found that LLS coatings exhibit superior anti-scaling performance compared to traditional perfluoroalkyl silanes (PFOS) and octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS). This superior anti-scaling performance primarily stems from the unique dynamic liquid properties of PDMS: the highly mobile molecular brushes form a dynamic interface that effectively reduces the affinity between the substrate and scale crystal nuclei, thereby inhibiting heterogeneous nucleation. At the same time, its lower adhesion properties prevent the adsorption and deposition of homogeneously nucleated crystals in solution. Further research by Tian et al.[105]combined poly spiropyran (PSP)-functionalized metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with LLS to fabricate a light-responsive LLS coating, achieving highly efficient anti-scaling performance. The PSP component adsorbs salt ions to delay scaling, while the LLS component reduces the affinity between scale and the substrate to inhibit scale formation. Moreover, when the coating is exposed to visible light, the adsorbed ions are rapidly released, restoring the adsorption sites. As a result, the coating exhibits both high efficiency and sustainable anti-scaling capabilities. This discovery not only broadens the material selection strategies for anti-scaling but also points the way toward the development of novel, environmentally friendly anti-scaling technologies.
图10 类液体表面在防结垢中的应用。（a） 分别在涂层表面接枝PDMS、全氟烷基硅烷（PFOS）和十八烷基三氯硅烷（OTS）的示意图[104]；（b） 涂层表面接枝PDMS、全氟烷基硅烷（PFOS）和十八烷基三氯硅烷（OTS）的防结垢测试效果图[104]

Fig.10 Application of liquid-like surfaces in anti-fouling. （a） Schematic diagram of grafting PDMS， perfluoroalkylsilane （PFOS）， and octadecyltrichlorosilane （OTS） onto coated surfaces， respectively[104]； （b） anti-fouling test results of coated surfaces grafted with PDMS， perfluoroalkylsilane （PFOS）， and octadecyltrichlorosilane （OTS）[104]

4.7 Inhibit membrane fouling

Membrane separation technology exhibits significant advantages in oil–water separation due to its high efficiency and low energy consumption. However, when dealing with stable water-in-oil (W/O) or oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, membrane pore blockage caused by emulsified microdroplets often leads to severe membrane fouling, a sharp decline in flux, and even membrane failure. In recent years, LLS technology has demonstrated unique advantages in the field of membrane separation, offering a new approach to addressing this challenge. Chen et al.[106-107]have constructed an LLS lubricating layer by grafting PDMS onto solid surfaces. This design not only effectively reduces fouling adhesion but also promotes liquid sliding at the membrane–liquid interface, thereby significantly enhancing permeation flux. Notably, compared with traditionally cross-linked polydimethylsiloxane (CPDMS), octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS), and perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane (PFOS)-modified membranes, separation membranes modified with liquid-like PDMS molecular brushes exhibit superior separation performance. This breakthrough advancement opens up new avenues for developing functional membrane materials with high separation flux and excellent antifouling properties (Fig. 11).
图11 类液体表面在抑制膜污染中的应用。（a） 分别在表面接枝PDMS、交联聚二甲基硅氧烷（CPDMS）、十八烷基三氯硅烷（OTS）和全氟烷基硅烷（PFOS）的示意图[106]；（b） 表面接枝PDMS、交联聚二甲基硅氧烷（CPDMS）、十八烷基三氯硅烷（OTS）和全氟烷基硅烷（PFOS）的抑制膜污染测试效果图[106]

Fig. 11 Application of liquid-like surfaces in membrane fouling mitigation. （a） Schematic diagram of grafting PDMS， cross-linked polydimethylsiloxane （CPDMS）， octadecyltrichlorosilane （OTS）， and perfluoroalkylsilane （PFOS） onto surfaces， respectively[106]； （b） membrane fouling inhibition test results of surfaces grafted with PDMS， cross-linked polydimethylsiloxane （CPDMS）， octadecyltrichlorosilane （OTS）， and perfluoroalkylsilane （PFOS）[106]

5 Conclusion and Outlook

As a novel functional material based on molecular flexible chain regulation, the macroscopic interfacial performance of LLS depends on the dynamic behavior at the molecular level. Compared with traditional liquid-repellent surfaces, LLS not only exhibits a simpler fabrication process but also boasts remarkable interfacial stability. This unique dynamic interfacial property transcends the limitations of conventional solid interfacial engineering materials, opening up new research directions for developing a new generation of high-performance interfacial materials. Although significant progress has been made in LLS fabrication technology, several key challenges remain. First, current understanding of LLS interfacial behavior and microscopic wetting mechanisms is still confined to theoretical hypotheses, underscoring the urgent need to develop experimental characterization and theoretical computational methods at the molecular scale to precisely elucidate the structure–property relationships between molecular chain dynamics and interfacial wetting behavior. Second, the mechanical durability and chemical stability of the coatings still require further improvement. While some durable LLS coatings have been reported, preparation methods for systems that combine environmental friendliness with rapid curing remain relatively scarce. Furthermore, although LLS can achieve extremely low contact angle hysteresis (CAH), its relatively slow droplet sliding speed may limit its application potential in certain fields.
In future research, it is necessary to advance collaboratively from multiple directions to open up broader development space for this field. First, emphasis should be placed on enhancing the multifunctionality of coatings by integrating functions such as flame retardancy and self-healing into LLS coatings. This not only significantly elevates fire safety standards in sectors like construction and electronics but also markedly extends the service life of coatings and reduces maintenance costs, thereby holding immeasurable value in fields such as aerospace and automotive manufacturing. Second, at the micro- and molecular scales, quantitatively assessing the mobility of surface-grafted molecular chains and gaining a deeper understanding of their motion patterns and quantitative metrics will help elucidate the liquid-repelling mechanism of LLS, providing a solid theoretical foundation for the precise design and performance optimization of these materials. Finally, in terms of application expansion, the smooth interface and dynamic de-wetting properties of LLS coatings should be fully leveraged to actively explore innovative applications in cutting-edge fields such as environment, biology, and energy. In the environmental sector, their unique properties can be exploited to develop high-efficiency oil–water separation materials and self-cleaning, eco-friendly coatings, offering new solutions for environmental pollution control. In biomedicine, LLS coatings hold promise for use in biomedical implant materials, where they can reduce immune rejection reactions, or in biosensors, where they can enhance detection sensitivity and accuracy. In the energy sector, exploring their potential applications in battery electrode materials and surface coatings for solar collectors can provide fresh insights into achieving efficient energy storage and conversion.

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