In the OER reaction, the pH of the electrolyte is one of the key factors influencing catalyst surface reconstruction. Under different pH conditions, the surface properties of the catalyst may undergo significant changes; especially for catalysts with poor chemical stability, structural transformations are more likely to occur in extreme pH environments. Under neutral conditions, the surface of certain catalysts can remain stable without an applied potential, whereas in strongly alkaline or acidic environments, this reaction process is prone to surface reconstruction. Under different pH conditions, OH^- concentration changes can be quantitatively expressed as: [OH^-]=10^pH-14, high pH leads to increased [OH^-], accelerating surface hydroxylation kinetics. The reconstruction rate is positively correlated with [OH^-], namely:rate∝[OH^-]^m. Where,mis the reaction order.

For example, Yang et al.^[49]synthesized perovskite-structured LaNiO_3-δ using the sol-gel method, and simultaneously synthesized La₂CO₃, La₂O₃, and NiO as raw materials to prepare La₂Li_0.5Ni_0.5O₄ catalysts. The research results indicate that both LaNiO_3-δ and La₂Li_0.5Ni_0.5O₄ underwent significant surface reconstruction during the OER process. As the pH value increased from 12.5 to 14, the [OH⁻] concentration increased by approximately 30 times. Results from high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) showed that the thickness of the amorphous layer on the catalyst surface increased from 2 nm to 6 nm, and the reconstruction rate constantk increased significantly with the increase in [OH⁻], proving that changes in pH affected the surface structure of the catalyst. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) further confirmed that edge-sharing NiO₆ octahedral structural units exist in this amorphous layer, and their formation rate accelerates with increasing OH^- concentration, because high pH accelerates Li⁺ leaching and lattice oxygen oxidation rates. Cao et al.^[50] prepared Co₉S₈ nanosheets using a solvothermal method and studied the regulation laws of pH on the surface reconstruction behavior of the catalyst during the OER process. The results show that in a strong alkaline environment of 1 mol/L KOH (pH=14), Co₉S₈ nanosheets exhibited a distinct oxidation peak at 1.3 V (vs. RHE). X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS) confirmed that these nanosheets completely transformed into sulfur-containing β-CoOOH reconstructs. This reconstruct exhibited an overpotential of 150 mV at a current density of 10 mA/cm² and a Tafel slope as low as 54 mV/dec; whereas under neutral conditions (1 mol/L phosphate buffer solution, pH=7), the catalyst formed oxygen-doped cobalt sulfide through selective oxidation. HAADF-STEM results indicated that the {001} interplanar spacing of the catalyst was 3.36 Å (1 Å=0.1 nm), with an overpotential of 1.60 V (vs. RHE) at the same current density and a Tafel slope of 159 mV/dec. pH gradient experiments (pH=5 acetate buffer and pH=10 ammonia buffer) combined with XAFS results indicated that the degree of surface reconstruction of the catalyst has a nonlinear relationship with local pH: at pH=5, the original Co₉S₈ crystal phase was maintained (Figure 3a), while at pH=10, it partially transformed into an O-CoS intermediate state (Figure 3b). This pH-dependent reconstruction behavior stems from the dynamic loss of sulfur ligands caused by differences in OH^- concentration in the electrolyte. In summary, pH has a significant impact on the surface reconstruction of catalysts; the surface structure of catalysts undergoes varying degrees of change under different pH conditions, thereby directly affecting catalyst activity.

Temperature is also a critical factor influencing catalyst surface reconstruction. Higher temperatures facilitate accelerated contact between the electrolyte and the electrode and enhance the charge transfer rate, thereby improving catalytic reaction kinetics and ultimately affecting the overall catalytic performance of the catalyst. According to the Arrhenius equation, where the catalyst reconstruction rate constantkand temperatureTare related as follows:$\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{ }k=\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{ }A-\frac{{E}_{\mathrm{a}}}{RT}$, whereE_arepresents the reconstruction activation energy. From the Arrhenius equation, it can be seen that the reconstruction rate constantkand temperatureTexhibit a negative exponential relationship; thus, an increase in temperature exponentially accelerates the surface reconstruction process. This indicates that either higher temperatures or lower activation energies can significantly enhance reconstruction kinetics.

Liu et al.^[51]prepared hydroxide catalysts derived from molybdates using a thermally induced reconstruction method and investigated the regulatory pattern of temperature on the structural evolution of molybdate catalysts. The results showed that at 51.9 °C, NiMoO₄catalysts underwent complete phase transformation during the OER process; their surface dense reconstruction layer (<10 nm) transformed into a porous and loose structure, promoting the complete leaching of Mo elements and the generation of the NiOOH active phase. High-temperature in situ Raman spectroscopy results indicated that the characteristic vibration peaks of NiMoO₄(385, 705, 910, and 960 cm^-1) completely disappeared after 10 min of OER reaction at 51.9 °C, accompanied by the continuous enhancement of the γ-NiOOH characteristic peaks (474 and 554 cm^-1), indicating that this temperature significantly accelerated the surface reconstruction kinetics of the catalyst; the reconstructed catalyst contained hydroxide nanoparticles with a particle size of approximately 5 nm, abundant grain boundaries, and oxygen vacancies, exhibiting an overpotential of 282.3 mV at a current density of 20 mA/cm², with a decay rate of 19.6 μV/h after continuous operation for 250 h at 51.9 °C. Zhou et al.^[52]systematically investigated the surface reconstruction behavior of NiCo₂O₄nanorod arrays in different electrolyte temperatures. The research results showed that at 25 °C, NiCo₂O₄maintained its original spinel structure (space groupFd-3m) and remained crystallographically stable after continuous polarization at 1.5 V (vs. RHE); no characteristic vibration signals of oxyhydroxides were detected by in situ Raman spectroscopy. When the electrolyte temperature was raised to 45 °C, a NiOOH characteristic peak with a wavenumber of 554 cm^-1 appeared in the in situ Raman spectra under polarization conditions of 1.3 V. The in situ Raman results confirmed that a fully reversible phase transformation can occur between spinel and oxyhydroxide, which is a thermodynamically driven first-order phase transition (Figure 4). The increase in electrolyte temperature induced phase reconstruction activation of the catalyst, accelerating the reaction kinetics process; the overpotential of the catalyst at 45 °C/100 mA/cm² current density decreased from 377 mV to 290 mV, the Tafel slope decreased from 84 mV/dec to 68 mV/dec, and the intrinsic activity parameter TOF value increased by 7 times atη = 300 mV.

In summary, electrolyte temperature is one of the key conditions for regulating the reconstruction of OER catalysts. Higher temperatures can accelerate the dynamic evolution of the catalyst surface structure, expose more active sites, and enhance interfacial mass transfer efficiency. Rationally utilizing temperature to reconstruct catalysts is an important method for improving catalyst performance.

The applied potential has a significant impact on the reconstruction behavior of OER catalysts. Changing the potential range allows for precise regulation of the catalyst's active sites and surface structure. The degree of catalyst reconstruction θcan be modeled as a function of potential:$\theta ={\theta }_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}\left(1-\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left(-\frac{t}{\tau }\right)\right)$. Here, θ_maxrepresents the maximum degree of reconstruction, and τis the time constant. During the OER process, the applied potential serves not only as the thermodynamic driving force triggering reconstruction but also influences the time constant τby regulating the interfacial reaction energy barrier, thereby altering the reconstruction rate. Thermodynamically, surface reconstruction is triggered only when the applied potential exceeds the intrinsic redox potential of the catalyst; the higher the potential, the greater the driving force, and the more complete the reconstruction. Therefore, the maximum degree of reconstruction θ_maxis determined by the applied potential. Kinetically, increasing the potential reduces the activation energy for surface atom rearrangement, ion migration, and phase transitions, shortening τ, accelerating the reconstruction process, and thus achieving regulation of the reconstruction rate.

Zhang et al.^[53]activated the catalyst via cyclic voltammetry scanning in the non-Faradaic region (-0.3~0.7 V vs. RHE) to obtain a core-shell structured Fe₃O₄@NiO catalyst. Studies indicate that by inducing the redox transition and surface reconstruction of the Fe₃O₄/C precursor, an Fe₃O₄/FeOOH/Ni_xFe_1-xO heterojunction is formed on the catalyst surface, which can significantly enhance its OER performance. Fe₃O₄@NiO at a current density of 10 mA/cm², its overpotential decreased from 350 mV to 291 mV, and the Tafel slope dropped from 75.3 mV/dec to 47.7 mV/dec.

On the other hand, high-potential dynamic reconstruction (1.2~1.8 V vs. RHE) is also a method to improve catalyst performance. Malek et al.^[54]regulated the dynamic leaching behavior of Cr by employing cyclic voltammetry in the Faradaic region (1.2~1.8 V vs. RHE), achieving dynamic surface structure reconstruction of Ni_xCr_yO catalysts. The research results indicate that during 200 cyclic voltammetry scans, Cr leaching promoted the formation of porous nanosheets on the catalyst surface, increasing its porosity by approximately 30% compared to the initial value. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization results (Figure 5) show that continuous Cr leaching not only induced the formation of oxygen vacancies but also significantly enhanced the exposure quantity of Ni³⁺active sites, increasing the electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) of the catalyst to 2.5 times its initial value. In seawater electrolysis, the catalyst exhibited excellent stability; even after continuous operation for 2000 h at a current density of 10 mA/cm², its overpotential increased by only 7 mV. The high stability of the catalyst stems from the abundant pores formed after reconstruction, which effectively suppressed the competitive adsorption of Cl^-ions at active sites and the precipitation poisoning effect of Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ions. Even at a high current density of 500 mA/cm², the overpotential of the catalyst was only 290 mV and remained stable within 100 h. These research results indicate that potential dynamic reconstruction of catalysts can solve the problem of poor stability of traditional catalysts in complex electrolytes.

In summary, applied potential, as the core driving force for catalyst surface reconstruction, can optimize the number of active sites and achieve deep reconstruction of the surface structure. This not only significantly enhances the OER performance of the catalyst but also provides a new method to address the challenge of long-term stable operation of catalysts in complex electrolytes.

Cation leaching is one of the primary methods for achieving controllable surface reconstruction of OER catalysts. This process optimizes reaction pathways by dynamically regulating the chemical environment of the catalyst's surface and interface. During the OER process, catalyst surface reconstruction is typically accompanied by the selective dissolution of metal cations and the redox behavior of lattice oxygen, thereby inducing dynamic evolution of the local electronic structure.

Guan et al.^[60]successfully synthesized Ba²⁺and Sr²⁺-doped perovskite catalysts (Ba_0.35Sr_0.65Co_0.8Fe_0.2O_3-δ, BSCF) and investigated them using undoped BSCF as a control sample. The results indicate that the leaching of Ba²⁺and Sr²⁺can reduce the concentration gradient of interfacial ions, inducing surface reconstruction of the catalyst and forming other stable phases. This surface reconstruction not only provides stable lattice oxygen active sites and shorter reaction pathways but also promotes the adsorption of OH^-by Co-Co/Fe metal active sites, thereby significantly enhancing the OER activity of the catalyst while also increasing its stability. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results reveal the presence of phases in the doped BSCF that differ from those in the pristine BSCF (Fig. 6a, b); the doped BSCF exhibits superior electrochemical performance. At a current density of 10 mA/cm², the overpotential of the doped BSCF is reduced by 137 mV compared to the undoped BSCF, attributed to cation leaching during the OER process; the introduction of soluble ions can optimize the structure of perovskite-type catalysts, increase their stability, and prevent the loss of active elements caused by excessive reconstruction; HRTEM results after the OER reaction (Fig. 6c, d) further confirm that the doped BSCF forms a more stable surface structure during the OER process, and this self-optimization mechanism ultimately enhances the OER performance of the perovskite-type catalyst.

Similarly, Chen et al.^[61]first prepared slightly oxidized bulk FeCoNiCr high-entropy alloys via arc melting, then fabricated self-supported high-entropy alloy electrodes using wire cutting, systematically investigating the impact of cation leaching on the catalyst's OER performance. The results indicate that Cr³⁺ion leaching led to the formation of island-like Cr₂O₃micro-regions, significantly altering the local coordination environment of the high-entropy alloy matrix, thereby optimizing the electronic structure of the catalyst. As an intermediate species in electrocatalytic reactions, Cr³⁺ion leaching induced charge transfer, triggering surface reconstruction and amorphization of the catalyst; amorphization enhanced the catalyst's surface activity, providing more active sites while reducing the reaction energy barrier; HRTEM results show (Fig. 7a) that both amorphous phases and CrFeCoNi metal particles coexist in the sample, further confirming the occurrence of the surface reconstruction process; (CrFeCoNi)₉₇O₃exhibits excellent OER catalytic performance (Fig. 7b), with an overpotential as low as 196 mV, a Tafel slope of 29 mV/dec, and stable operation for over 120 h at a current density of 10 mA/cm². The leaching of Cr³⁺not only led to oxide formation and optimized the catalyst's electronic structure, but also enhanced the catalyst's stability, significantly improving its overall catalytic performance.

For transition metal oxides, doping with elements of higher electronegativity can regulate their redox potential and ion leaching potential, thereby precisely controlling the dynamic surface reconstruction of the catalyst. Wang et al.^[62]successfully achieved in situ leaching of Li⁺from LiCoO₂ through chlorine doping. Studies show that Cl doping significantly alters the electronic structure of the material, reduces the oxidation potential of Co, thereby enabling lithium leaching at lower potentials and inducing surface reconstruction. The reconstruction pathways of LiCoO₂and chlorine-doped LiCoO_1.8Cl_0.2electrode materials are shown inFigure 8. The results indicate that Cl doping significantly reduces the in situ oxidation potential of Co and the leaching potential of Li⁺, causing LiCoO_1.8Cl_0.2to transform into an amorphous (oxy)hydroxide phase during the OER process. In contrast, undoped LiCoO₂requires overcoming a higher electrochemical potential under the same conditions to form the spinel-type Li_1±xCo₂O₄, and requires a longer time to reach a stable state. Furthermore, at the same anodic potential, Co in undoped LiCoO₂is oxidized to Co³⁺, whereas Co in Cl-doped LiCoO_2-xCl_xis oxidized to Co⁴⁺. Moreover, after the OER reaction, Co in LiCoO_2-xCl_xis not reduced to a lower valence state. This indicates that the driving force for the AEM mechanism originates from cation oxidation (conversion to a higher valence state); lower potentials facilitate the oxidation of cations to high valence states, thereby inducing the AEM mechanism. In summary, cation leaching not only provides a new method for dynamic surface reconstruction of catalysts but also creates conditions for optimizing the surface structure of catalysts.

As a research hotspot for OER electrocatalysts, transition metal chalcogenides (TMCs) often exhibit anion leaching behavior during electrochemical processes. This dynamic leaching process not only triggers reconstruction of the catalyst surface structure but also modulates the electronic structure of active sites, ultimately optimizing the OER reaction pathway.^[63]. Shi et al.^[64]prepared NiSe₂ nanosheets via a hydrothermal method and investigated the impact of SeO₄^2- ion leaching on OER catalytic performance using in situ Raman spectroscopy. The results indicate that NiSe₂ generated NiOOH after surface reconstruction. During the electrocatalytic process, Se₂ on the NiSe^2- surface is first oxidized to SeO₃^2-, and finally converted to SeO₄^2-, with 99.5% of Se leached out and dissolved in the electrolyte (XPS results show the Se atomic percentage decreased from 63% to 0.31%). Notably, by additionally introducing different concentrations of SeO₂ into a pure Ni(OH)₃^2- catalyst system, when its concentration reached 0.1 mol/L, the Tafel slope of the catalyst also decreased to 57 mV/dec, indicating that both externally introduced selenate and selenate generated by catalyst self-oxidation can optimize reaction kinetics and enhance the OER performance of the catalyst.

The anion leaching-induced catalyst surface reconstruction strategy is universal. Liu et al.^[65]prepared iridium single-atom-loaded Ni₂P₄O₁₂catalyst (Ir/Ni₂P₄O₁₂). Studies show that the introduction of Ir atoms can promote the leaching of PO₄3-_{in transition metal oxide Ni}2_P4_O¹², significantly accelerating its electrochemical reconstruction process, generating more NiOOH, thereby providing additional active sites, and ultimately greatly enhancing the catalyst activity; HAADF-STEM confirmed the uniform dispersion of iridium single atoms in Ni₂P₄O₁₂(Fig. 9a, b); this catalyst exhibits excellent OER catalytic performance, with overpotentials of 186 and 238 mV at current densities of 10 and 100 mA/cm², respectively, and a Tafel slope of 42.15 mV/dec (Fig. 9c, d). Similarly, Liao et al.^[66]performed anodic oxidation on NiFe foam in an electrolyte containing NaCl and thiourea to prepare SO₄^2--modified NiFe hydroxide catalyst (NF-S0.15). The results indicate that the redox peaks in the cyclic voltammetry curves of NF-S0.15 shift towards negative potentials, whereas the redox peaks of the control sample without thiourea electrolyte do not shift, indicating that the leaching of SO₄^2-effectively promotes the oxidation process of nickel from Ni²⁺to Ni³⁺. After surface reconstruction of the catalyst, XPS results of NF-S0.15 show that the characteristic peak signal of SO₄^2-in the original sample has basically disappeared, and only a weak sulfur signal is detected in EDS, indicating that most SO₄^2-undergoes leaching during the OER process, with only a small amount remaining on the catalyst surface. The leaching of SO₄^2-facilitates the electrochemical reconstruction of the catalyst, forming the highly catalytically active NiFeOOH phase. In addition, by adding sulfate to the electrolyte of NF-S0.15, the SO₄^2-adsorbed on the catalyst surface can also stabilize the *OOH intermediate, thereby improving the OER reaction activity.

In summary, anion leaching can enhance the OER performance of catalysts. On one hand, the dynamic leaching process induces surface reconstruction of the catalyst and generates highly active metal hydroxides; on the other hand, trace amounts of anions remaining on the catalyst surface can also regulate the adsorption energy barriers of intermediates, thereby optimizing catalytic reaction kinetics.

Metal element doping can induce lattice distortion, optimize charge transport pathways, and regulate the surface reconstruction kinetics of catalysts, ultimately enhancing their OER performance.^[68]. Its mechanism of action is mainly as follows: (1) Lattice stress caused by dopant atoms induces the generation of oxygen vacancies; (2) Electronic interactions between introduced heteroatoms and original catalyst component atoms improve the electrical conductivity of the catalyst; (3) The d-band center position of active sites is regulated, thereby optimizing the adsorption energy of intermediates. For example, Sun et al.^[69]prepared perovskite-type (ABX₃) LaNiO₃catalysts via a hydrothermal method and investigated the regulation patterns of rare earth elements on catalyst surface reconstruction. The results indicate that A-site Ce doping can reduce the reconstruction potential of Ni active species and accelerate the dynamic surface reconstruction process of the catalyst. As the oxygen vacancy content increases, the OER performance of the catalyst improves significantly.Figure 10shows a schematic diagram of the surface reconstruction of A-site Ce-doped La_1-xCe_xNiO₃, illustrating the process where La_1-xCe_xNiO₃reconstructs into active NiOOH. Furthermore, the Ce doping level is positively correlated with the reconstruction potential of Ni sites. DFT calculations indicate that Ce doping increases the orbital energy of O 2p, facilitating the generation of oxygen vacancies, thereby accelerating the dynamic surface reconstruction process of the catalyst.

Precious metal doping can effectively regulate the phase transition kinetics of transition metal oxide catalysts. Lin et al.^[70]used a SiO₂template method to prepare porous NiO nanocubes, loaded them with 0.5 wt% Pt as a support, and finally investigated the reconstruction and transformation process of the NiOOH active phase. The results showed that during the alkaline electrolysis process, the bulk 0.5% Pt/NiO catalyst exhibited the strongest phase reconstruction capability, superior to those with PtO₂nanoparticles distributed on the surface (1% Pt/NiO) and Pt/NiO samples prepared by atomic layer deposition; therefore, the 0.5% Pt/NiO catalyst demonstrated the best OER performance, with the lowest overpotential and Tafel slope. XPS results indicated that the surface Ni/O atomic ratio of all samples was consistent with the stoichiometric ratio of NiOOH, while the internal composition consisted of the NiO phase, suggesting that Pt doping effectively promotes the conversion of NiO to NiOOH. DFT calculations further revealed that single-atom Pt is not the catalytic active site for OER, but rather serves to reduce the migration energy barrier of adjacent Ni atoms, accelerating the reconstruction transformation from NiO to NiOOH.

Metal element doping not only optimizes the band structure and lattice of catalysts but also influences the adsorption/desorption energy of reactants or intermediates at heterogeneous catalytic interfaces, thereby altering catalytic reaction kinetics. Selvam et al.^[71]prepared Ni(OH)₂/Co₉S₈ catalysts using solvothermal and electrodeposition methods, and constructed an ultrathin NiOOH/CoOOH heterointerface through in situ Fe doping. The results indicate that after surface reconstruction, the Fe-doped Ni(OH)₂/Co₉S₈ catalyst transforms into a high-valence Fe-doped NiOOH/CoOOH heterojunction, with NiOOH/CoOOH coating the Co₉S₈ exterior (Figure 11a); Fe doping not only modulates the electronic structure of the catalyst and optimizes the binding energy of OER intermediates, but also enhances the activity of Co/Ni metal sites, reducing the overpotential to 345 mV at a current density of 400 mA/cm² (Figure 11b).

In summary, metal element doping achieves simultaneous improvement in the OER catalytic activity and stability of catalysts by regulating their electronic structure, optimizing lattice oxygen reactivity, and reducing surface reconstruction energy barriers.

Non-metal element doping enhances the OER activity of catalysts by regulating the electronic structure and lattice defect density on the catalyst surface^[72-73]. The introduction of high-electronegativity elements (F, Cl, Br, and P) can induce electron redistribution and enhance orbital hybridization effects between metals and ligands, thereby regulating the adsorption and desorption behavior of oxygen intermediates. Furthermore, non-metal doping significantly affects the surface reconstruction kinetics of catalysts; dopant atoms lower the reconstruction energy barrier by altering the local coordination environment, accelerating the in-situ generation of active phases. Meanwhile, lattice distortions and defects induced by non-metal element doping can stabilize the structure of the reconstructed layer, suppressing excessive oxidation or phase separation. Additionally, dopant atoms can effectively reduce the energy barrier for surface atom rearrangement, hastening the transformation of the catalyst into highly active metal hydroxides under anodic potentials. Therefore, non-metal element doping also plays a critical role in enhancing OER performance.

Zhu et al.^[74]prepared CoSe₂precursors via a hydrothermal method and synthesized phosphorus-doped cobalt selenide (CoSe_1.26P_1.42) using chemical vapor deposition. Studies indicate that phosphorus doping significantly enhances the OER performance of the CoSe₂catalyst by regulating its crystal structure and surface reconstruction kinetics. HRTEM reveals that the cubic phase (c-CoSe₂) has an interplanar spacing of 0.36 nm, corresponding to the {110} planes; whereas after phosphorus doping, the catalyst transforms into an orthorhombic phase (o-CoSe₂), with an interplanar spacing of 0.59 nm, corresponding to the {100} planes (Fig. 12a, b). X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) results show that at a potential of 1.44 V (vs. RHE), the average oxidation state of Co in the phosphorus-doped sample is +3.2, higher than the +2.8 in the undoped sample, indicating that doping promotes the generation of Co³⁺active species (Fig. 12c, d). In situ Raman spectroscopy results show that characteristic CoOOH vibrational peaks at 498 and 600 cm^-1appear in the phosphorus-doped sample at 1.44 V; whereas undoped CoSe₂requires an increase to 1.54 V to exhibit the same signals, indicating that phosphorus doping enables rapid reconstruction of the catalyst surface into the active CoOOH phase at low overpotentials (Fig. 12e). Phosphorus doping leads to the reconstructed CoSe_1.26P_1.42catalyst exhibiting excellent OER catalytic performance, with an overpotential of 255 mV at a current density of 10 mA/cm²and a Tafel slope as low as 87 mV/dec. This can be attributed to anion vacancies induced by phosphorus doping enhancing OH^-adsorption, while the surface reconstruction forming CoOOH exposes numerous active sites with high intrinsic catalytic activity.

In the perovskite system, Zhu et al.^[75]prepared phosphorus-doped perovskite oxide SrCo via solid-state reaction_0.95P_0.55O_3-δ(SCP). The results indicate that: although SCP and undoped SrCoO_3-δ(SC) possess similar surface morphology and pore structure, phosphorus doping endows the catalyst with higher electrical conductivity and more abundant oxygen intermediates (such as O₂^2-and O^-). After 1000 durability tests, the OER catalytic performance of SCP improved, whereas that of SC significantly degraded due to the formation of a surface amorphous layer and the leaching of Sr²⁺. Meanwhile, during the durability testing process, the electrochemical surface area of the phosphorus-doped perovskite oxide continuously increased. This phenomenon is also observed in sulfur-doped systems (such as SrCo_0.95S_0.05O_3-δ) and bimetallic phosphorus-doped systems (such as Sr(Co_0.8Fe_0.2)_0.95P_0.05O_3-δ), indicating that non-metal doping has universality in enhancing the OER performance of perovskite oxides.

In summary, non-metal doping balances the structural stability and dynamic reconstruction capability of catalysts, providing a new pathway for constructing non-precious metal OER catalysts with both high activity and high stability.

Multi-element co-doping can synergistically regulate the electronic structure, surface reconstruction kinetics, and intermediate adsorption behavior of catalysts^[76-77]. Chen et al.^[78]prepared a W-P-FeB catalyst by co-doping tungsten (W) and phosphorus (P) into FeB via chemical reduction and investigated its OER performance. The results indicate that during the OER catalytic process, B and P undergo dynamic leaching, forming borates and phosphates in situ, which induce surface reconstruction of the catalyst into an electrochemically active amorphous layer, thereby optimizing the adsorption-desorption kinetics of key intermediates in the OER process. Furthermore, the presence of borates can alter the electronic structure of Fe and W in the FeB catalyst. At a current density of 10 mA/cm², the overpotential of this catalyst is only 209 mV. DFT calculation results show that the introduction of W modulates the electronic structure of FeOOH, significantly reducing the energy barrier of the reaction, thereby effectively promoting the desorption of the *OOH intermediate.

Similarly, Zheng et al.^[79]'s DFT calculation results indicate that doping with Co, Fe, and non-metal P can significantly reduce the formation energy of Ni⁴⁺active sites in nickel hydroxides; based on these theoretical calculation results, the authors synthesized NiCoFeP hydroxide using a sol-gel method and investigated its redox kinetics under neutral pH conditions to verify the accuracy of the DFT calculations. XAS results show that Ni²⁺in NiCoFeP hydroxide can transform into Ni⁴⁺at low overpotentials, thereby exhibiting excellent OER catalytic performance, superior to NiP, NiCoP, and IrO₂control samples; the NiCoFeP catalyst showed no significant increase in potential after continuous operation for 100 h at a current density of 10 mA/cm², indicating its excellent long-term stability.

In summary, the multi-element co-doping strategy effectively overcomes the limitations of single-element modification on the number and intrinsic activity of catalyst active sites through structural synergistic effects among multiple components, providing a new strategy for the development of efficient and stable heterogeneous catalysts.