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Abbreviation (ISO4): Prog Chem      Editor in chief: Jincai ZHAO

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Progress in Chemistry >

2026 , Vol. 38 >Issue 2: 352 - 366

DOI: https://doi.org/10.7536/PC20250907

Review

Fabrication，Structure Manipulation，and Performance of Fluorine-Containing Epoxy Resins

  • Jiahui Chen ,
  • Wenrui Chen , * ,
  • Shijia Yang ,
  • Yang Wang ,
  • Lanxuan Liu
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  • China Academy of Machinery Wuhan Research Institute of Materials Protection Co.， Ltd.，State Key Laboratory of Special Materials Surface Engineering， Wuhan 430030， China
*

Received date: 2025-09-04

  Revised date: 2025-11-25

  Online published: 2026-02-04

Supported by

Technology Innovation Planning of Hubei Province(2024BAB117)

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Abstract

In recent years，the rapid advancement of modern technology in fields such as aerospace，electronic information，and deep-sea engineering has imposed increasingly stringent requirements on the comprehensive performance of materials serving in extreme environments （e.g.，high temperature，high humidity，strong corrosion，and high-frequency electric fields）. Traditional epoxy resins，however，suffer from inherent limitations such as insufficient heat resistance and limited chemical stability. To address these issues，fluorine atoms or fluorine-containing groups have been incorporated into epoxy resin systems through precise molecular design and structural regulation，leading to the development of a series of fluorinated epoxy resins with excellent heat resistance，low dielectric constant，and high chemical stability. While retaining the inherent high mechanical strength and excellent adhesion of conventional epoxy resins，these materials exhibit significantly enhanced comprehensive performance under extreme conditions，such as high temperature，high humidity，strong corrosion，and high-frequency electric fields，attributed to the high bond energy of C—F bonds and the strong electronegativity of fluorine atoms. This review begins with the construction methods of fluorine-containing epoxy resins and the mechanisms of fluorination modification，systematically summarizes the effects of various strategies，including chemical modification，physical blending，and surface fluorination，on the aggregation state structure，interfacial characteristics，and macroscopic properties. It further reviews the application progress of such materials in heavy-duty anti-corrosion coatings，high-frequency electronic packaging，and composites for extreme environments. Current challenges related to cost control，performance balance，and environmental adaptability are discussed. Finally，future development trends and opportunities in green synthesis，intelligent responsiveness，and high-throughput design are prospected.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Synthesis and preparation of fluorine-containing epoxy resin

2.1 The synthesis method of fluorine-containing epoxy resin

2.2 The influence of functionalization modification on epoxy resin

3 Research progress and innovative breakthroughs in the multi-dimensional application of fluorine-containing epoxy resin materials

3.1 Chemical engineering field：long-lasting anti-corrosion and functional coating innovation

3.2 Electronics field：breakthroughs in high-frequency dielectric and integrated packaging

3.3 Frontier interdisciplinary field：innovation in extreme environments and green materials

4 Conclusion and outlook

Key words： epoxy resin; fluorine-containing group; synthesis methods; structural regulation; extreme environments; research progress

Cite this article

Jiahui Chen , Wenrui Chen , Shijia Yang , Yang Wang , Lanxuan Liu . Fabrication，Structure Manipulation，and Performance of Fluorine-Containing Epoxy Resins[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2026 , 38(2) : 352 -366 . DOI: 10.7536/PC20250907

1 Introduction

As an important class of thermosetting polymers, epoxy resins, by virtue of their outstanding adhesion, excellent mechanical strength, and prominent chemical resistance, play a vital role in chemical coatings and adhesives[1-3], electronic electrical insulation materials[4-9], advanced composite materials[10-13], and biomedical devices[14-15]and other fields, long occupying an indispensable position. However, their inherent molecular structural limitations, such as the susceptibility of C—C bonds to breakage under high-energy radiation and the thermal-oxidative aging sensitivity caused by the low bond energy of C—N bonds, severely restrict the material's fatigue resistance, long-term thermal stability, and resistance to water/oil media, thereby limiting their expanded application in more harsh industrial environments. Meanwhile, the development of modern technology has imposed increasingly stringent performance requirements for extreme service environments (such as high temperature, high pressure, high humidity, strong corrosive media, and intense UV radiation), greatly driving the innovative research and development of functional epoxy resin materials.
Epoxy resins form a three-dimensional cross-linked network through the reaction of epoxy groups with curing agents. Although traditional epoxy resins exhibit excellent mechanical and adhesive properties, they often lack necessary special properties under extreme environments (such as superior chemical corrosion resistance, UV aging resistance, and effective integration of specific functional additives). To address this, functionalization modification strategies for epoxy resins have emerged, centering on molecular design by introducing specific functional groups such as fluorine, silane, and amino groups to endow the materials with required high-performance characteristics. Among these, fluorine-containing epoxy resins (Fluorine epoxy resin, FEP), due to their unique physicochemical properties[16], have received significant research attention over the past few decades. The high electronegativity of fluorine atoms (χ=3.98), small atomic radius (r=71 pm), and ultra-strong C—F bond energy (E=485~535 kJ/mol) significantly enhance the thermal stability and durability of modified epoxy resin materials, while substantially reducing their surface energy and friction coefficient, and endowing them with exceptional resistance to chemical media[17-21], providing an effective pathway to meet demanding application requirements.
In recent decades, significant progress has been made in the research of fluorinated epoxy resins, including novel synthetic methodologies, detailed structural characterization, and diversified application exploration[22-23]and other aspects. This review aims to systematically summarize recent frontier application innovations, core challenges, and development trends of fluorinated epoxy resins in key fields such as chemical engineering, electronics and electrical engineering, and interdisciplinary studies both domestically and internationally, while providing an in-depth outlook on future development directions and potential breakthroughs in this field.

2 Synthesis and preparation of fluorine-containing epoxy resins

2.1 Synthesis method of fluorine-containing epoxy resin

The synthesis strategies for fluorine-containing epoxy resins are diverse, with the core objective being the efficient introduction of fluorine elements into the epoxy resin system to endow the material with superior special properties. Based on the method of fluorine introduction and its bonding form within the resin, existing synthesis methods can be mainly categorized into three types: chemical modification, physical blending, and direct surface fluorination. Their overall classification and representative applications are asFigure 1shown.
图1 含氟环氧树脂的3种合成方法[24-25]

Fig.1 Three synthesis methods of fluorine-containing epoxy resin[24-25]. Copyright 2023，Elsevier. Copyright 2015，American Chemical Society

2.1.1 Chemical modification method

This is currently the most widely applied and deeply researched strategy, which precisely anchors fluorine groups onto the resin skeleton or cross-linked network through chemical bonding. It mainly includes direct synthesis using fluorinated monomers, introduction via fluorinated curing agents/additives, and grafting modification.
The direct synthesis method using fluorinated monomers refers to the use of fluorinated monomers (such as fluorinated styrene and fluorinated acrylates) and epichlorohydrin (ECH) as raw materials to directly synthesize epoxy resin prepolymers containing fluorine in the main chain or side chains via polycondensation reactions. Zhao et al. from Jilin University[26]reacted 3-(trifluoromethyl)aniline (PTFMA) with ECH to successfully synthesize a 3-trifluoromethylphenyl hydroquinone epoxy monomer containing —CF3groups in the main chain. The method of introducing fluorinated curing agents/additives involves designing and synthesizing fluorinated curing agents or reactive additives to chemically bond fluorine groups into the final three-dimensional network structure during the curing and crosslinking process of epoxy resins. For example, Zhao's team[26]used 4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoic acid as a starting material and reacted it with 1,2-diaminobenzene to synthesize a curing agent containing a benzimidazole structure with trifluoromethyl groups; Yu Xinhai et al.[27]employed a hydration reaction to reduce 2,2-bis(3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenyl)hexafluoropropane (Phenol, 4,4'-[2,2,2-trifluoro-1-(trifluoromethyl)ethylidene]bis[2-nitro-, BNHPFP), obtaining a functional fluorinated epoxy curing agent. The graft modification method refers to utilizing fluorinated modifiers (containing active functional groups such as hydroxyl, amino, or epoxy groups) to undergo chemical reactions with functional groups on the epoxy resin molecular chains, thereby grafting fluorinated segments onto the resin's main chain or side chains. For example, Rao Jianbo et al.[28]used 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane (Bisphenol AF, BAF) and 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane (Bisphenol A, BA) as raw materials to synthesize fluorinated monomers via condensation reactions, followed by addition reactions to obtain the fluorinated epoxy resin 2,2-bis(3-amino-4-hydroxyphenyl)hexafluoropropane (2,2-Bis(3-Amino-4-Hydroxyphenyl)Hexafluoropropane, BAHPFP).
The core characteristic of the chemical modification method is molecular-level design and bonding. It aims to permanently and uniformly introduce fluorine elements into the bulk molecular skeleton or three-dimensional cross-linked network of epoxy resin in the form of covalent bonds through fluorinated monomers, curing agents, or grafting reactions. This modification alters the intrinsic properties of the material at the "genetic" level, affecting its overall performance.

2.1.2 Physical blending method

This method features a simple process and low cost. It achieves performance improvement by directly dispersing fluorine-containing fillers (such as fluorinated montmorillonite, fluorinated graphene, fluoropolymer microspheres, etc.) into the epoxy resin matrix before curing, utilizing physical interactions (such as van der Waals forces).[29]. For example, Wang et al.[30]employed a multi-step method to obtain epoxy resin/polytetrafluoroethylene (EP/PTFE) particles via mixing, as well as polydopamine (PDA) and silica (SiO2) particles grown in situ on the surface of graphene with a fluorinated silane coupling agent (POTS) (GP-SiO2-POTS). Subsequently, EP-PTFE/GP-SiO2-POTS coatings were obtained through electrostatic spraying followed by heating. The enhanced corrosion resistance of this system is essentially due to the synergy between the physical barrier effect and hydrophobic characteristics of the fluorine-containing microspheres, which delays the penetration of corrosive media into the substrate. Brostow et al.[31]obtained a DGEBA+DGTFA epoxy resin mixture by blending diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) with diglycidyl ether of trifluoromethyl aniline (DGTFA). However, the key to this method lies in ensuring uniform dispersion of the fillers within the matrix and good interfacial compatibility; otherwise, phase separation is likely to occur, affecting the final comprehensive properties of the material.

2.1.3 Direct surface fluorination method

This technology is a surface engineering method focused on material surface modification, utilizing fluorine-containing active gases (such as F2, CF4, etc.) to treat cured epoxy resin products under specific conditions (temperature, pressure, time), enabling fluorine atoms to graft onto the resin surface layer molecules via substitution reactions (replacing hydrogen atoms or hydroxyl groups) or addition reactions (acting on unsaturated bonds), thereby forming a fluorine-rich surface layer[32]. For instance, the Feng and Li team at Xi'an Jiaotong University[25]revealed the mechanism by which fluorine hybridization affects the dielectric response of epoxy polymers. By regulating the fluorine hybridization process, they optimized the dielectric response and properties of epoxy polymers to meet application requirements in electronic devices. Epoxy resin samples were prepared using bisphenol A-type epoxy resin (EP) and methyl tetrahydrophthalic anhydride (Me-THPA) as the curing agent. A 12.5% F2/N2gas mixture was used to perform surface fluorination on the epoxy resin samples for 1 hour at 80°C and 1.0 MPa. This process enabled fluorine atoms to replace hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups on the epoxy resin surface and undergo addition reactions with carbon-carbon double bonds, entering the epoxy resin surface to form a fluorinated surface layer. Unlike chemical modification methods where fluorine groups can be introduced into the resin backbone and cross-linked network, the advantage of this method lies in its ability to selectively enhance surface properties (such as reducing surface energy and enhancing hydrophobicity/oleophobicity) while basically not altering bulk properties. Chemical modification starts from molecular design to reconstruct bulk properties, whereas direct surface fluorination starts from application requirements to impart surface functionality. Its main limitations are the need for specialized equipment to handle highly active fluorine-containing gases, resulting in higher costs, and the fact that the modification effect is limited to the surface.
The core differences among the three methods lie in the bonding form of fluorine elements (chemical bonding/physical dispersion/surface grafting), which directly determines essential distinctions such as the uniformity of fluorine distribution, the depth of modification, and the performance stability of fluorine-containing epoxy resins. To systematically summarize and compare the above three main synthesis strategies for fluorine-containing epoxy resins,Table 1a detailed review was conducted from key dimensions including the mechanism of fluorine introduction, controllability of fluorine distribution, process complexity, cost, depth of modification, and characteristics of performance impact.
表1 含氟环氧树脂的主要合成方法对比

Table 1 Comparison of the main synthesis methods of fluorine-containing epoxy resin

Synthetic method Fluorine introduction mechanism Controllability
of fluorine distribution		 Process complexity Cost Modification
depth		 Characteristics of performance impact
Chemical modification method Chemical bonding high medium to high medium ontology/
network		 The performance optimization is significant and stable.
（1）Direct synthesis of monomers Main/side chain embedding high high medium to high ontology The structure is uniform and the performance is highly designable.
（2）Introduction of fluorine-containing curing agents Network node embedding high medium medium network It affects the crosslinking density and the overall performance.
（3）Grafting modification Main/side link branches medium to high medium to high medium to high part of ontology Functionalize specific areas.
Physical blending method Physical dispersion low low low filler of ontology Performance improvement is limited and relies on dispersion/ interface.
Surface direct fluorination method Surface reaction surface height high high micron-level surface Selectively optimize surface performance.

2.2 Mechanism of the Effect of Functional Modification on Epoxy Resin Properties

The core objective of functional modification is to endow epoxy resins with comprehensive properties capable of coping with harsh service environments and meeting specific functional requirements. Its influence mechanisms can be systematically categorized into two major aspects: regulation of adaptability to external environments and optimization of the relationship between internal structure and performance.

2.2.1 Modification Strategies and Performance Responses Driven by External Extreme Environments

Multifunctional epoxy resins often need to operate in extreme environments, and their performance is directly constrained by environmental factors. To address different environmental challenges, researchers have developed corresponding modification strategies to enhance the material's tolerance and functionality.Figure 2Systematically summarizes the core requirements of extreme environments such as high temperature, high pressure, and high humidity on the performance of fluorine-containing epoxy resins, providing environmental background support for the elaboration of subsequent modification strategies.
图2 不同外部环境对含氟环氧树脂的影响

Fig.2 The influence of different external environments on fluorine-containing epoxy resins

(1) Thermal environment challenges (high temperature, low temperature, thermal cycling)
High-temperature stability is primarily applied in scenarios such as spacecraft surfaces and engine components, requiring resins to possess excellent thermal stability. Traditional thermosetting epoxy resins often face the contradiction of difficultly achieving both high modulus/high strength and high toughness simultaneously, whereas the high bond energy (485~535 kJ/mol) of C—F bonds in fluorine-containing epoxy resins can significantly enhance their strength and thermal stability. The team of Wang and Lin from East China University of Science and Technology[33]innovatively proposed a machine learning-assisted materials genome approach (MGA) for the rapid design of novel epoxy resin thermosetting materials with high modulus, high strength, and high toughness through high-throughput screening within the vacuum chemical space.
Low-temperature adaptability is mainly applied in polar engineering and winter building coatings, requiring solutions to problems such as poor film formation and easy cracking of coatings at low temperatures. The team of Fu from Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University and Ma from the University of South Australia[34]To address the issues of chalking and cracking that traditional bisphenol A-based waterborne epoxy coatings are prone to under low-temperature and high-humidity conditions, a novel and stable waterborne epoxy resin was developed. Through molecular design, flexible chain segments were introduced to enhance its film-forming properties and flexibility at low temperatures, while balancing mechanical performance and durability, resulting in a varnish capable of curing at 5 °C to form a transparent and continuous film.
Thermal cycling resistance is primarily applied in scenarios such as road crack repair, requiring materials to withstand drastic temperature changes. The strategy involves composite phase change materials (PCMs) (such as paraffin and modified graphene), utilizing their latent heat of phase change to buffer thermal expansion stresses, thereby developing modified epoxy mortars that combine high thermal stability, suitable phase change enthalpy, and excellent mechanical properties.[35].
(2) High-pressure environment tolerance
Deep-sea equipment and impact-resistant structures require resins to maintain structural integrity under ultra-high pressures (e.g., tens to hundreds of GPa). Studies show that specific formulations of epoxy-anhydride adhesives (such as chlorinated epoxy resin/IMTHFA systems) exhibit good structural stability under impact pressures as high as 330~400 GPa[36], but their chemical decomposition threshold (approximately >25 GPa) remains a key limitation.
(3) Adaptability to strong electric field/high voltage environments
Strong electric fields and high voltages represent another common extreme environment. During the long-term operation of Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) and Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines (GIL), charges accumulate on the surface of insulators. To address this issue, fluorination modification is required to increase the flashover voltage. The team of Lv Fangcheng at North China Electric Power University[31]employed low-temperature plasma technology to perform fluorination modification on epoxy resin insulation samples, investigating the electrical performance of the modified epoxy resin in C4F7N/CO2mixed gas, particularly the surface flashover characteristics. They obtained samples showing a 52% increase in the average positive polarity flashover voltage, a 78% increase in the average negative polarity flashover voltage, and a 16% increase in the flashover voltage of specimens under AC voltage. Addressing the phenomenon of corona discharge in power systems and grids, the Zhang team at Xi'an Jiaotong University[37]developed an epoxy resin insulation material with self-healing capabilities to improve the reliability, sustainability, and service life of power equipment and electronic devices.
(4) Protection in high humidity/chemical corrosion environments
High-humidity environments and chemically corrosive environments are also extreme conditions that epoxy resin materials often need to face; epoxy coatings must resist medium corrosion.[38]. Through superamphiphobic properties[39]and the introduction of other functional groups, this approach addresses the issues of poor coating compactness and inadequate adhesion between the film-forming resin and metal, which lead to unsatisfactory anti-corrosion performance when existing modified epoxy resins are used in heavy-duty anti-corrosion coatings. Simultaneously, it is necessary to maintain insulation under high-humidity conditions.[33]. By introducing flexible segments through chemical modification, a novel and stable waterborne epoxy resin is developed to improve its weather resistance under high-humidity conditions.
(5) High mechanical stress/cyclic load tolerance
Aerospace structures and wearable medical devices require materials that combine high strength with fatigue resistance. Traditional epoxy resins, due to their permanent cross-linked networks and high-rigidity chain segments, face bottlenecks such as high brittleness and difficulty in recycling.[40]. The team of Liu Yunpeng at North China Electric Power University[41]is dedicated to developing recyclable, high-strength, and tough epoxy resins, aiming to overcome technical challenges in their recycling and reuse in fields such as electrical equipment. They obtained samples with a tensile strength retention rate of nearly 76% and an electrical strength retention rate of nearly 90% after physical hot-pressing recycling, achieving efficient resource utilization and environmental protection.

2.2.2 Internal Structure Factor Regulation and Performance Optimization Mechanism

Functional modification fundamentally optimizes the properties of epoxy resins by precisely regulating their molecular and microstructures.
(1) Molecular and Chemical Structure Regulation
Fluorine content is a key factor affecting the performance of fluorinated epoxy resins. As fluorine content increases, the hydrophobicity, corrosion resistance, and dielectric properties of the resin usually improve. However, fluorine content and its performance are not linearly positively correlated; when fluorine content is too high, intermolecular forces weaken, leading to a decline in mechanical properties. Its equilibrium threshold is closely related to the molecular chain structure (long carbon chains/aromatic rings). Among them, fluorinated epoxy resins containing long carbon chains exhibit better thermal stability and dielectric properties.[42].
Chemical structure design and the introduction of dynamic bonds are common methods for modifying the functionality of epoxy resins. To enhance material degradability and self-healing capabilities, dynamic covalent bonds (such as ester bonds, disulfide bonds, Schiff base bonds, etc.) can be introduced into epoxy resins. For example, Schiff base bonds (C$\stackrel{\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ }}{̿}$N) possess high bond energy (E=615 kJ/mol), enabling degradation under mild conditions while maintaining mechanical properties[43]. Alternatively, when selecting specific epoxy resin monomers, choosing those containing ester bonds leverages their hydrolyzability to provide a basis for epoxy resin degradation[44]. Regarding the flame retardancy and transparency of epoxy resins, hyperbranched polyborophosphates are typically used. Through electronic regulation of boron and phosphorus elements, the performance of epoxy resins is enhanced. Simultaneously, dynamic bonds strengthen energy dissipation capabilities, thereby improving the toughness of epoxy resins[45-47].
(2) Crosslinking and aggregation structure regulation
The regulation of the network structure is achieved through molecular-level design, forming interpenetrating networks during polymerization. By employing deep eutectic solvent polymerization, the hydrogen bond network density is increased, simultaneously enhancing the tensile strength and toughness of the epoxy resin.[43]. However, during the curing of low-molecular-weight epoxy resins, excessive crosslinking density leads to increased coating brittleness. When subjected to mechanical damage, defects and microcracks form, accelerating the corrosion rate of the metal substrate and causing phenomena such as coating blistering and delamination, thereby reducing the service life of the coating.[48], therefore, appropriate control of the crosslinking degree is of significant importance for improving the performance of epoxy resins.
Changes in interfacial state and aggregated structure represent another method for modifying the properties of epoxy resins. The interfacial bonding between carbon fibers and epoxy resin restricts the migration of epoxy resin atoms, thereby delaying material failure by reducing the rate of thermo-oxidative aging in the interfacial region.[49], however, while enhancing the hardness of carbon fiber-reinforced composites, it reduces their toughness, necessitating surface modification of the carbon fibers to improve their interfacial performance.[50], for instance, adding trace amounts of graphene oxide to the epoxy resin matrix can significantly improve the overall mechanical properties of the composite by enhancing the resin's wettability toward the fibers and increasing the thickness of the final composite interfacial layer.[51]. Alternatively, introducing fluorine atoms into the epoxy resin leverages their small van der Waals radius and strong mutual repulsion between adjacent fluorine atoms; since these atoms do not lie in the same plane, embedding other atoms becomes difficult. Furthermore, the presence of fluorine atoms reduces the surface energy of the epoxy resin, thereby enhancing its corrosion resistance and hydrophobicity.[52].
(3) Optimization of synthesis process parameters and realization of multifunctionality
Process parameters such as reaction temperature, time, catalyst type and dosage, and the pH value of the reaction system are key factors for the structural regulation and performance optimization of fluorine-containing epoxy resins. Optimizing the synthesis process not only precisely controls the molecular polymerization rate and molecular weight distribution, reducing resin viscosity and improving processing flowability, but also indirectly optimizes basic material properties such as mechanical strength and thermal stability by regulating the degree and uniformity of cross-linking reactions. For instance, appropriately increasing the reaction temperature can promote the bonding efficiency between fluorine-containing monomers and the epoxy matrix, while selecting high-efficiency catalysts can reduce side reactions, ensuring the uniform distribution of fluorine groups within the molecular chains or cross-linked networks. These parameters indirectly achieve performance optimization by influencing molecular polymerization and structure formation, serving as a supplementary dimension for structural regulation.
Meanwhile, precise control of process parameters is also a crucial support for achieving multifunctionalization goals. For self-healing and degradable functions, the reaction temperature and catalyst selection directly affect the formation efficiency and stability of dynamic covalent bonds (such as ester bonds, disulfide bonds, Schiff base bonds, etc.); mild polymerization conditions can prevent the rupture of dynamic bonds, ensuring that the material exhibits reliable self-healing and degradable performance during service. For flame-retardant functions, optimizing the feeding sequence and reaction temperature of boron/phosphorus/fluorine-containing monomers can improve the grafting rate of flame-retardant groups onto the epoxy matrix, enhance the uniform dispersion of flame-retardant elements within the material, thereby increasing the limiting oxygen index and flame-retardant rating. Furthermore, process parameters can regulate the surface enrichment degree of fluorine-containing groups, assisting in the synergistic optimization of functions such as superhydrophobicity and corrosion resistance.
Molecular structure is the foundation; cross-linked/aggregated structures are the macroscopic manifestations of molecular structure; process parameters ensure structural control. The synergy of these three determines the material's fundamental properties, while multifunctionalization represents the advanced goal of structural control.

2.3 Multi-scale Characterization Methods and Standardized Evaluation System for Fluorine-containing Epoxy Resins

In the precise design and performance optimization of fluorinated epoxy resins, the synergistic support of advanced characterization techniques and standardized testing systems is crucial. The core of characterization lies in "accurately verifying the introduction of fluorine elements, quantifying the effects of structural regulation, and correlating macroscopic properties." Various characterization techniques achieve full-chain mechanism verification from "molecular structure to microscopic morphology to macroscopic performance" through complementarity.Figure 3systematically presents the key characterization and testing methods employed for its synthesis pathway, morphological features, and performance characteristics[26,53]; these methods are an important guarantee for achieving controlled synthesis and reliable application of fluorinated epoxy resins.
图3 含氟环氧树脂的不同测试方法及结果分析[26,53]

Fig.3 The testing methods and result analysis of fluorine-containing epoxy resin[26,53]. Copyright 2009，Elsevier. Copyright 2021，American Chemical Society

2.3.1 Molecular Structure and Chemical Composition Characterization

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) is a test used to analyze the chemical structure of fluorine-containing epoxy resins, detecting the introduction of fluorine elements and changes in functional groups. Characteristic absorption bands related to C—F bonds can often be observed in the spectrum, which can verify whether fluorine has been successfully incorporated into the resin structure. The C—F bond exhibits extremely strong absorption peaks in the range of 1400~1000 cm-1. To further determine whether the fluorine substitution reaction is complete, near-infrared spectroscopy and in-situ infrared spectroscopy, representing the latest advancements, can also be selected for further testing.[54-55].
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) utilizes the selective absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet-visible region by substances to identify different functional groups based on their absorption bands. Due to the presence of π-π conjugated benzene rings and the strong electron-withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms, the inductive effect in fluorine-containing epoxy resins can cause a blue shift or red shift in specific ultraviolet absorption peaks.[56].
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) studies the absorption of radiofrequency radiation by atomic nuclei. By analyzing NMR spectra, the chemical environment and content of fluorine atoms in fluorine-containing epoxy resins can be determined.[57]. In NMR, common chemical shifts (δ) for fluorine elements include —CF3 at approximately -60 to -80 ppm (1 ppm = 1×10-6), —CF2— at approximately -110 to -120 ppm, and aromatic fluorine (Ar—F) at -100 to -150 ppm.
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) obtains information by measuring the energy distribution of photoelectrons and Auger electrons emitted from the sample surface, and is typically used in conjunction with Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES).[58]. In the XPS spectrum, the binding energy of fluorine F 1s is approximately 685.7 eV, and —CF2— is approximately 688.9 eV.

2.3.2 Characterization of Microscopic Morphology and Phase Structure

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is a technique used to study the surface structure and properties of materials by detecting the extremely weak interatomic forces between the sample surface and a micro force-sensitive component.[59]. In AFM, fluorine elements primarily manifest as characteristics such as enhanced hydrophobicity, reduced adhesion, and changes in mechanical properties. These traits largely stem from the extremely high electronegativity of fluorine atoms and the strong polarity of C—F bonds; among them, fluorinated regions exhibit a smaller phase lag angle in AFM, typically 5°~15° lower than hydroxyl regions.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) uses a high-energy electron beam to scan the sample. By collecting information from the interaction between the electron beam and the material, it performs magnification and re-imaging to characterize the microscopic morphology of the substance.[60]. For fluorine-containing epoxy resins, the usual practice is to observe the microscopic morphology of the resin to analyze its surface structure and dispersion. However, in Back Scattered Electron (BSE) mode, the fluorine-containing regions appear dark black, exhibiting low contrast with the matrix, making them difficult to distinguish directly.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) uses an electron beam as the light source and electromagnetic fields as lenses to observe fine structures smaller than 0.2 μm that cannot be resolved by optical microscopes. In TEM, the electron scattering intensity is proportional to the square of the atomic number (Z), while fluorine has an atomic number of 9 and an extremely small scattering cross-section, rendering it nearly invisible in bright-field images (BF-TEM). To enhance its signal intensity, Z-contrast imaging can be employed, causing fluorides (such as PTFE) to appear as dark regions within a heavy-element matrix for observation[61].
Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a structural analysis method distinct from X-ray wide-angle (2θ ranging from 5° to 165°) diffraction[53]. By irradiating the sample with X-rays, the corresponding scattering angle 2θ is approximately 5° to 7°. Fluorine exhibits distinct characteristics in SAXS. Due to its high atomic number and large electron cloud density, fluorine forms a significant electron density contrast with light elements such as carbon and hydrogen. This contrast generates strong scattering signals in SAXS, making it particularly suitable for analyzing phase-separated structures in fluorinated polymers (e.g., PTFE), fluorinated surfactants, or nanocomposites[62-64].

2.3.3 Thermal Performance and Stability Characterization

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) refers to measuring the relationship between the power difference input to the sample and the reference and temperature under programmed temperature control. DSC is commonly used to study the glass transition temperature of resins (Tg) and other thermal transition behaviors. The introduction of fluorine can affectTgand the overall curing kinetics, thereby allowing customization for specific applications. For the determination of fluorine-containing epoxy resins, samples usually exhibit unique phase transition behaviors, high thermal stability, and strong bond energy effects, such as C—F bonds restricting segmental motion, leading toTgsignals being extremely weak, which can be highlighted by separating reversible/irreversible heat flows[65].
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a method that measures the relationship between the mass of a substance and temperature or time under programmed temperature control. By analyzing the thermogravimetric curve, information related to mass can be obtained, such as the composition of the sample and its possible intermediate products, thermal stability, thermal decomposition behavior, and generated products. TGA is typically used to evaluate the thermal stability of resins and determine their decomposition temperature and char yield. Compared with traditional epoxy resins, fluorine-containing resins usually exhibit characteristics such as higher initial decomposition temperatures, unique weight loss steps, and the release of highly corrosive gases.[66].

2.3.4 Macro Performance Standardized Testing

In the macroscopic performance evaluation of fluorinated epoxy resins, hydrophobicity is one of the key indicators reflecting the wetting behavior of the coating surface and the wetting state of droplets on the material surface, typically quantified through dynamic and static water contact angles. In addition to hydrophobicity, electrical insulation properties, coating adhesion, impact resistance, and chemical resistance are also important aspects for evaluating their comprehensive performance. To ensure the reliability and comparability of test results, all performance tests are strictly conducted in accordance with relevant national and international standards.Table 2Systematically summarizes the core performance categories, key evaluation parameters, and corresponding standardized methods of fluorinated epoxy resins, providing clear normative basis for experimental design and performance verification.
表2 含氟环氧树脂核心性能的标准化测试体系

Table 2 A standardized testing system for the core properties of fluorine-containing epoxy resin

Performance category Key parameters National Standard International standard
Electrical insulation performance Surface resistivity GB/T 1410-2006 IEC 62631-3-1：2016
Coating adhesion Drawing strength GB/T 5210-2006 ISO 4624：2016
Flexibility Shaft bar bending test GB/T 1731-2020 ISO 1519：2011
Impact resistance The impact energy
of a falling hammer		 GB/T 1732-2020 ISO 6272-1：2011
Chemical resistance Mass loss rate after acid/alkali/solvent immersion GB/T 9274-1988 ISO 2812-2：2018
Resistant to salt spray corrosion The rust at the scratch expands in width GB/T 1771-2007 ISO 9227：2017
Hydrophobicity Static water contact Angle GB/T 30693-2014 ISO 19403-3：2017
Dielectric properties Dielectric constant/loss （1 MHz~1 GHz） GB/T 1409-2006 IEC 60250：1999

3 Research Progress and Innovative Breakthroughs in Multidimensional Applications of Fluorine-Containing Epoxy Resin Materials

3.1 Chemical Industry: Long-term Anti-corrosion and Functional Coating Innovation

Fluorinated epoxy resins, leveraging the intrinsic advantages of their three-dimensional cross-linked networks (high adhesion, chemical corrosion resistance, and thermal stability), have become the core matrix materials for heavy-duty anti-corrosion engineering (such as petrochemical storage tanks and offshore platforms) and lightweight composite materials (carbon fiber-reinforced pressure vessels). The hydrophobic and oleophobic characteristics of fluorine groups, combined with a densified cross-linked network, can effectively block the penetration of corrosive media.
Early modifications of fluorinated epoxy resins focused more on the synthesis of the resin itself. As early as 2011, the Yang team from the Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences[67]generated a fluorinated epoxy compound by reacting 1,1′-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroethane (6FDO) with ECH, yielding 4,4′-bis(2,3-epoxypropoxyphenyl)-1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroethane (BEF). The synthesis route is asshown in Scheme 1(i). However, this type of chemical modification method requires relatively harsh reaction conditions and has a limited range of functional regulation, which restricts its industrial application.
图式1 （i） 含氟环氧树脂BEF合成路线图[67]；（ii） HFBMA改性的环氧乙烯基酯树脂的合成路线图[68]

Scheme 1 （i） Synthesis roadmap of fluorine-containing epoxy resin BEF[67]. Copyright 2010，John Wiley and Sons；（ii） synthetic roadmap of HFBMA-modified epoxy vinyl ester resin[68]

To overcome the aforementioned limitations, the direction of innovation in anti-corrosion coatings and functionality has gradually shifted towards using fluorine-containing curing agents that react with conventional epoxy resins, thereby introducing fluorine groups into the curing system. Consequently, fluorine-containing curing agents have developed rapidly, with various types of fluorinated acrylate compounds being widely applied.
Yang Zhuohong et al. from South China Agricultural University[68]Under the catalysis of triethylbenzylammonium chloride and hydroquinone, epoxy resin E-44 was ring-opened using acrylic acid (AA) to prepare epoxy vinyl ester resin (VER) (Scheme 1 (ii)), followed by the introduction of a low concentration of 2,2,3,4,4,4-hexafluorobutyl methacrylate (HFBMA). Fluorinated epoxy vinyl ester resin (FVER) cured films were obtained via free radical polymerization. When the mass fraction of HFBMA was 0.4%, the tensile strength reached 59.90 MPa, and after immersion in 3.5% NaCl solution for 82 days, the low-frequency impedance modulus of the coating remained at 2.43×109 Ω·cm2or above, demonstrating relatively excellent anti-corrosion performance.
In 2021, the team of Wei Ming from Wuhan University of Technology[69]used epoxy resin E51 as the main film-forming substance and adopted tridecafluorooctyl methacrylate (1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-perfluorooctyl methacrylate, TFM) for fluorosilicone modification to prepare fluorinated amino silicone (FAS). Comparing the coating performance before and after modification revealed that the 15% FAS/EP composite coating showed significant improvements in hardness (3H), adhesion (grade 1), flexibility (0.5 mm), impact resistance (50 cm), water contact angle (123°), UV aging resistance (432 h, grade 1), and electrochemical properties (Ecorr= -0.1720 V, Icorr=3.7125×10-10 A/cm2), demonstrating excellent weather resistance and hydrophobicity. Its preparation and curing process is as shown in Figure 4.
图4 FAS和FASEP制备及固化流程示意图[69]

Fig.4 Schematic diagram of the preparation and curing process of FAS and FASEP[69]. Copyright 2021，Chemical Industry Press

In 2023, Ren Qiang et al. from Changzhou University[70]prepared poly(1H,1H,7H-dodecafluoroheptyl methacrylate) (DFHMA) and poly(DFHMA-co-glycidyl methacrylate) (DFHMA-GMA) copolymer microspheres via dispersion polymerization. These microspheres were incorporated as fillers into epoxy resin to obtain composite coatings with uniform dispersion, low water absorption, excellent UV aging resistance, and superior impact resistance. This method not only utilizes the hydrophobic and oleophobic properties of fluorinated polymers to block corrosive media but also regulates the surface energy of the microspheres through glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) copolymerization, promoting their uniform dispersion in the resin and thereby enhancing the shielding effect. Asshown in Figure 5, the introduction of microspheres effectively delayed the penetration of corrosive media, maintaining the coating's impedance value at 109 Ω·cm2 after 60 days of testing, with water absorption reduced to 0.7%.
图5 纯环氧树脂与微球涂料的区别示意图[70]

Fig.5 Schematic diagram of difference between pure epoxy and coatings with microspheres[70]. Copyright 2023，Polymer Materials Science and Engineering

In 2023, the team of Yi Changfeng from Hubei University[71]used DFHMA and GMA as monomers to synthesize a solvent-free fluorinated polyacrylate containing epoxy groups (Perfluorohexyl ethyl methacrylate, PFEMA). The synthesis route is shown inScheme 2(i). PFEMA was physically blended with EP to obtain a 6% PFEMA/EP composite coating, which achieved a water contact angle of 115° and a low-frequency impedance value of 6×104 Ω·cm2, demonstrating the best comprehensive performance in hydrophobicity, corrosion resistance, and chemical medium resistance.
图式2 含氟聚合物的合成路线：（i） PFEMA合成路线图[71]；（ii） 苯胺-氟苯胺共聚反应路线图[72]

Scheme 2 Synthetic route of fluoropolymers. （i） PFEMA synthesis roadmap[71]；（ii） route map of AN-FAN copolymerization reaction[72]. Copyright 2024，China Plastics Industry

In 2024, Wang Shan et al. from Wuhan University of Technology[72]copolymerized aniline and fluoroaniline (FAN) via microemulsion polymerization to synthesize nano-scale polyaniline-fluoroaniline copolymer (PANI-FAN), with the reaction pathway asScheme 2(ii)shown. PANI-FAN was incorporated as a filler into epoxy resin to prepare a 3% PANI-FAN/EP composite coating. The introduction of fluorine groups increased the interchain distance of polyaniline, alleviating its aggregation and poor dispersion issues, thereby increasing the water contact angle of the coating to 148.7°. After immersion in 35% NaCl solution for 60 days, the low-frequency (f=0.01 Hz) impedance remained at 9.3×109 Ω·cm2, and almost no corrosion products were observed after a 360-hour salt spray test.

3.2 Electronics Field: Breakthroughs in High-Frequency Dielectrics and Integrated Packaging

Epoxy resins are widely used in the power electronics and aerospace fields for insulation, encapsulation, and structural materials due to their excellent electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. Fluorine-containing epoxy resins further promote the development of electronic packaging materials towards low dielectric constant (Dk), low dielectric loss (Df), high heat resistance, and high flame retardancy in an integrated direction[73]; the essence of their low dielectric performance is that the low polarizability of fluorine atoms reduces the dipole moment of the molecular chains.
In 2013, the team of Wang Haiqiao at Beijing University of Chemical Technology[74]designed and synthesized a fluorine-containing epoxy resin, 4-Fluoro-4′,4″-diglycidyl ether triphenylmethane (FDE). After curing with methyl nadic anhydride (MNA), its glass transition temperature (Tg) and thermal decomposition temperature (Td5%) increased by more than 60 °C compared to ordinary DGEBA. At 106 and 107 Hz frequencies, the dielectric constants decreased by 12.7% and 10.2%, respectively. However, this type of synthesis route requires harsh reaction conditions and is difficult to scale up for application. Therefore, recent research has focused more on filler modification or the application of fluorine-containing curing agents.
In 2023, the Liu and Zhao team at South China University of Technology[75]used 4,4′-(hexafluoroisopropylidene) diphthalic anhydride (6FDA) as a raw material to synthesize fluorinated polyimide oligomers (FPI) in a mixed acid solvent, with the structure shown inScheme 3(i). The introduction of FPI reduced the molecular chain polarizability, causing theDkandDfof EP/FPI-3 at 100 MHz to drop to 3.08 and 0.018, respectively, compared to pure epoxy (Dk≈3.5~4.0,Df≈0.025~0.03), achieving aDkreduction of over 12%, while simultaneously improving water resistance and thermal stability.
图式3 （i） FPI结构式示意图[75]；（ii） 含氟聚合物的合成路线：HAPI 的合成[76]

Scheme 3 （i） Schematic diagram of the FPI structure[75]. Copyright 2023，Elsevier；（ii） synthetic route of fluoropolymers：synthesis of HAPI[76]. Copyright 2023，American Chemical Society

In the same year, the team[76]further adopted an "A2+B3" one-pot synthesis strategy to prepare hyperbranched fluorinated imide oligomers (HAPI) using 6FDA and a DOPO-containing triamine (PNTA), with the synthesis route shown inScheme 3(ii). The resulting EP/HAPI-3 thermoset material exhibited aTg increased to 156.2 °C, while the Young's modulus and tensile strength improved by 36.7% and 39.7%, respectively, and theDk decreased by approximately 13.0%.
In 2024, the Luo and Dai team at Xiamen University[77]synthesized two fluorinated aliphatic side-chain polymers, 3FOP and 12FOP, via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (RAFT) (see synthesis route inScheme 4(i)), serving as phosphorus-fluorine synergistic modifiers for epoxy resins. The composite with 10% 12FOP achieved a water contact angle of 116.5°, an increased limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 32.8%, and a 33.2% reduction in peak heat release rate,Dkdecreased by 17.6%, demonstrating a "low dielectric-multifunctional synergy" design concept that significantly expands the application prospects of epoxy resins in high-frequency electronic packaging.
图式4 含氟聚合物的合成路线：（i） 3FOP和12FOP的合成[77]；（ii） 4-FDPO的合成[78]

Scheme 4 Synthetic route of fluoropolymers. （i） Synthesis of 3FOP and 12FOP[77]. Copyright 2024，Elsevier；（ii） synthesis of 4-FDPO[78]

In the same year, Professor Wang Zhongwei's team at Shandong University of Science and Technology[78]used diphenyl phosphine oxide (DPO) and 4-fluorobenzyl chloride as raw materials to synthesize the fluorinated organophosphorus compound (4-fluorobenzyl) diphenyl phosphine oxide (4-FDPO). The synthesis route is shown inScheme 4(ii). 4-FDPO was used as a flame retardant to co-cure epoxy resin with DDS. The resulting material achieved an LOI of 34.3%, a UL-94 rating of V-0, and within the frequency range of 0.1~15 MHz,Dk≈3.2,Df≈0.04.
In the same year, Zou, Liu, and others from Sichuan University[79]used BAF, isophthaloyl chloride (ICI), and benzoyl chloride (BzCl) as raw materials to synthesize three types of fluorine-containing main-chain active ester curing agents (AE) in two steps. The synthesis route is shown inScheme 5. Among them, AE-3 exhibits a lowDk(2.76) and an acceptableDf(0.0736) at 10 GHz. Meanwhile, by increasing the crosslinking density, it improved thermal stability and mechanical properties, becoming a representative achievement in China's current field of high-frequency low-dielectric fluorinated epoxies.
图式5 含氟聚合物的合成路线：AE的合成[79]

Scheme 5 Synthetic route of fluoropolymers：Synthesis of AE[79]. Copyright 2024，Elsevier

Fluorine-containing epoxy resins can achieve low dielectric constant and low dielectric loss. The root cause lies in the profound impact of the unique physicochemical properties of fluorine atoms on the intrinsic polarization and molecular motion of the material. The main mechanisms can be attributed to the following three aspects.
Reduce the intrinsic polarizability of the material: The C—F bond exhibits extremely low molar polarizability. The strong electronegativity of fluorine atoms tightly binds bonding electrons around the nucleus, significantly reducing electronic polarizability, thereby decreasing the dielectric constant contributed by electronic polarization at its source. Meanwhile, this weakened polarization capability directly reduces energy loss caused by polarization relaxation (i.e., dielectric loss).
Increasing the free volume between molecular chains: Due to the large van der Waals radius of fluorine atoms and the chain segment rigidity resulting from the high bond energy of C—F bonds, the introduction of fluorine-containing groups increases steric hindrance and mutual repulsion between polymer chains. This hinders the close packing of molecular chains, thereby leading to an increase in the internal free volume of the material, which consequently reduces the dielectric constant.
Suppression of dipole motion and polarization relaxation: Rigid fluorinated aromatic rings or fluorinated side groups restrict the local motion of the polymer backbone and side chains, increasing the glass transition temperature (Tg), thereby making dipole relaxation associated with segmental motion difficult to occur.

3.3 Frontier Interdisciplinary Fields: Innovation in Extreme Environments and Green Materials

Epoxy resins also demonstrate broad application potential in cutting-edge interdisciplinary fields such as biomedicine, extreme environments, and green materials.
In terms of extreme environment applications, in 2024, the team of Yan and Wu from Dalian University of Technology[80]synthesized a novel fluorinated glycidyl amine epoxy resin (TFEPA) and blended it with phosphorus-containing bisphenol F diglycidyl ether (DGEBF) and the modifier PDGEP to construct a liquid oxygen-compatible epoxy system. The synthesis route of PDGEP is asshown in Scheme 6(i). The addition of TFEPA significantly improved the flexural strength and toughness of the material at -196 °C, increasing them by 4.46% and 10.79% respectively, making it suitable for the manufacturing of cryogenic liquid oxygen storage tanks.
图式6 含氟聚合物的合成路线：（i） PDGEP 的合成[80]；（ii）SA-BTB 的合成[82]

Scheme 6 Synthetic route of fluoropolymers （i） Synthesis of PDGEP[80]；（ii） synthesis of SA-BTB[82]. Copyright 2023，Elsevier

In the direction of green materials, in 2023, Xie's team from North China University of Science and Technology[81-82]reacted 2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)diaminobiphenyl (BTB) with syringaldehyde to construct a fluorinated Schiff base structure (N,N′-(2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-dial) bis(1-(3,5)-dimethoxy-4-(oxiran-2-ylmethoxy)phenyl)methanimine, SA-BTB), thereby synthesizing the bio-based fluorinated epoxy resin SA-BTB-EP. Its synthesis route is as shown inScheme 6(ii). This material not only achieves the UL-94 V-0 flammability rating, with an LOI reaching 43.3% and char residue increased to 42.3%, but also possesses biodegradable characteristics, providing a new pathway for the design of high-performance environmentally friendly materials.

4 Conclusion and Outlook

Epoxy resins have become an indispensable key material in multiple fields due to their excellent mechanical strength, superior adhesion, and outstanding resistance to chemical corrosion. However, under extreme service environments (such as high temperature, high pressure, high humidity, and strong corrosive media), traditional epoxy resins exhibit insufficient heat resistance, fatigue resistance, and anti-aging performance, significantly restricting their deepened application and expansion in high-end industrial sectors. To effectively address these performance bottlenecks, fluorinated epoxy resins have emerged as needed. Benefiting from the high electronegativity (χ=3.98) and the ultra-strong C—F bond energy (E=485~835 kJ/mol) and other unique properties conferred by the introduction of fluorine atoms, the functional modification of this class of epoxy resins demonstrates exceptional durability, extremely low surface energy, significantly enhanced thermal stability, and superior resistance to chemical corrosion. These breakthrough performance advantages continue to make them a research hotspot in the field of materials science. In recent years, researchers both domestically and internationally have achieved fruitful results, successfully developing a series of fluorinated epoxy resins with specific high-performance characteristics, laying a solid foundation for their applications in cutting-edge fields such as high-performance protective coatings, advanced electronic packaging, and lightweight composite materials.
Nevertheless, the further development of fluorinated epoxy resins still faces significant challenges.
(1) Complex preparation processes and high production costs limit their large-scale commercial application; some modification strategies may lead to a loss of bulk mechanical properties, making it urgent to balance the relationship between functionalization and mechanical performance.
(2) Under diversified and complex extreme environments (such as the coupling of ultra-high temperature/ultra-high pressure and long-term exposure to highly corrosive media), the long-term stability and service reliability of materials still require further optimization and verification.
(3) The environmental friendliness and sustainability of the material's full life cycle need to be systematically considered. Current recycling and degradation technologies remain at a bottleneck stage, and there are still no quantitative assessments for evaluation standards regarding recycling regeneration systems and environmental risks.
Looking to the future, the research and development of fluorinated epoxy resins needs to focus on the following key directions.
(1) Greening and Sustainability: Vigorously develop environmentally friendly green synthesis strategies, actively introduce bio-based raw materials and dynamic covalent chemistry, achieve breakthroughs in the efficient recycling and circular utilization of high-performance epoxy resins, and significantly reduce the environmental footprint.
(2) Intelligent R&D Approach: Deeply integrate high-throughput computational simulation and virtual screening technologies driven by artificial intelligence (such as autonomous machine exploration and autonomous deep learning) to accelerate the design, performance prediction, and process optimization of novel fluorinated monomers and resin systems, significantly enhancing R&D efficiency.
(3) High performance for extreme environments: Continuously deepen the understanding of failure mechanisms of materials under extreme/multi-field coupling environments, precisely design molecular structures and cross-linking networks, and synergistically optimize resistance to extreme environments and comprehensive mechanical properties.
With the breakthrough of the aforementioned key scientific issues and technical bottlenecks, fluorine-containing epoxy resins with excellent comprehensive performance will inevitably play a more critical core supporting role in major national strategic demand fields such as aerospace, deep-sea engineering, and high-frequency/high-power electronic devices, leading the new development of high-performance polymer materials.

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