Almost all interactions and reactions that occur in living organisms involve proteins. The various biological roles of proteins include, but are not limited to, signal transduction, gene transcription, cell death, immune function, structural support, and catalysis of all the chemical reactions that enable organisms to survive. The varied roles of proteins have led to them being dubbed ‘the workhorses of all living organisms’. This article discusses the functions of proteins and how protein function is studied in a laboratory setting. In this article, we begin by examining the functions of protein domains, followed by a discussion of some of the major classes of proteins based on their function. We consider protein binding in detail, which is central to protein function. We then examine how protein function can be altered through various mechanisms including post-translational modification, and changes to environment, oligomerisation and mutations. Finally, we consider a handful of the techniques employed in the laboratory to understand and measure the function of proteins.

Based on growth or nitrogen balance, amino acids (AA) had traditionally been classified as nutritionally essential (indispensable) or non-essential (dispensable) for animals and humans. Nutritionally essential AA (EAA) are defined as either those AA whose carbon skeletons cannot be synthesized de novo in animal cells or those that normally are insufficiently synthesized de novo by the animal organism relative to its needs for maintenance, growth, development, and health and which must be provided in the diet to meet requirements. In contrast, nutritionally non-essential AA (NEAA) are those AA which can be synthesized de novo in adequate amounts by the animal organism to meet requirements for maintenance, growth, development, and health and, therefore, need not be provided in the diet. Although EAA and NEAA had been described for over a century, there are no compelling data to substantiate the assumption that NEAA are synthesized sufficiently in animals and humans to meet the needs for maximal growth and optimal health. NEAA play important roles in regulating gene expression, cell signaling pathways, digestion and absorption of dietary nutrients, DNA and protein synthesis, proteolysis, metabolism of glucose and lipids, endocrine status, men and women fertility, acid–base balance, antioxidative responses, detoxification of xenobiotics and endogenous metabolites, neurotransmission, and immunity. Emerging evidence indicates dietary essentiality of “nutritionally non-essential amino acids” for animals and humans to achieve their full genetic potential for growth, development, reproduction, lactation, and resistance to metabolic and infectious diseases. This concept represents a new paradigm shift in protein nutrition to guide the feeding of mammals (including livestock), poultry, and fish.

Global concerns about population growth, economic, and nutritional transitions and health have led to the search for a low-cost protein alternative to animal origins. This review provides an overview of the viability of exploring mushroom protein as a future protein alternative considering the nutritional value, quality, digestibility, and biological benefits.Plant proteins are commonly used as alternatives to animal proteins, but the majority of them are low in quality due to a lack of one or more essential amino acids. Edible mushroom proteins usually have a complete essential amino acid profile, meet dietary requirements, and provide economic advantages over animal and plant sources. Mushroom proteins may provide health advantages by eliciting antioxidant, antitumor, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), inhibitory and antimicrobial properties over animal proteins. Protein concentrates, hydrolysates, and peptides from mushrooms are being used to improve human health. Also, edible mushrooms can be used to fortify traditional food to increase protein value and functional qualities. These characteristics highlight mushroom proteins as inexpensive, high-quality proteins that can be used as a meat alternative, as pharmaceuticals, and as treatments to alleviate malnutrition. Edible mushroom proteins are high in quality, low in cost, widely available, and meet environmental and social requirements, making them suitable as sustainable alternative proteins.© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.

It is expected that the world population will reach 9 billion by 2050. Thus, meat, dairy or plant-based protein sources will fail to meet global demand. New solutions must be offered to find innovative and alternative protein sources. As a natural gift, edible wild mushrooms growing in the wet and shadow places and can be picked by hand have been used as a food. From searching mushrooms in the forests and producing single cell proteins (SCP) in small scales to mega production, academia, United Nations Organizations, industries, political makers and others, play significant roles. Fermented traditional foods have also been reinvestigated. For example, kefir, miso, and tempeh, are an excellent source for fungal isolates for protein production. Fungi have unique criteria of consuming various inexpensive wastes as sources of carbon and energy for producing biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids with a minimal requirement of other environmental resources (e.g., light and water). Fungal fermented foods and SCP are consumed either intentionally or unintentionally in our daily meals and have many applications in food and feed industries. This review addresses fungi as an alternative source of edible proteins and animal feed, focusing mainly on SCP, edible mushrooms, fungal fermented foods, and the safety of their consumption.

Mushroom production is a growing sector as the demand for this product is increasing. The quantity of waste and by-products generated along the supply chain is however considerable (about 20% of the fresh weight is disposed). Although the recovery of chitosan from mushrooms has been extensively studied, little has been done to optimize the recovery of proteins, which make up to 20% of dry weight. In the present work, six different by-products were studied for their crude composition and their protein fraction was characterized in detail. Then, a comparative study was conducted on three different extraction techniques (environmentally friendly aqueous extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction). Enzyme-assisted extraction has proven to be the most efficient technique in terms of protein extraction yield, even though the protein fraction is extracted in the form of peptides and not whole proteins. The lowest degree of hydrolysis is instead given by the ultrasound-assisted extraction, which however shows a rather high degree of racemization which decreases the quality of the proteins. The aqueous extraction, despite the low extraction yield, gave the purest protein extracts.

Fungal proteins are highlighted for their nutritional value and bioactive properties, making them a significant alternative to traditional protein sources. This review evaluates various green extraction technologies, including enzymatic-, ultrasound-, higher-pressure homogenization-, microwave-assisted, pulsed electric fields-, and supercritical fluid-assisted extraction, focusing on their effectiveness in disrupting fungal cell walls and preserving protein integrity. The findings indicate that these technologies could have the potential to improve protein yield and quality, addressing the challenges posed by fungal cell walls’ complex and resilient structure. The review also underscores the bioactivities of fungal proteins, including antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. The conclusion emphasises the need for further optimisation and scaling of these technologies, as well as exploring a wider range of fungal species to fully understand their potential as sustainable protein sources. Future research directions include refining extraction methods, integrating multiple approaches, and utilising novel green solvents to maximise efficiency and yield.

It is well-known that the utilization of mushrooms as therapeutic agents is not new. Over the past years, they have been used by local individuals as food, as well as medicines, throughout the world. Nowadays, mushrooms are excessively used in the medicine, pharmacy, food, and fermentation fields as well. Wild mushrooms are of particular interest, especially Trametes versicolor (commonly known as turkey mushrooms) due to their various uses in the food and pharmaceutical industries. They represent not only a huge storehouse of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, but they are also an important source of bioactive polysaccharides. They are widely used in traditional oriental therapies. The fruiting bodies are used in the preparation of health tonics and tea. The present review is necessary to explore more about this mushroom-like classical taxonomy, morphology, nutritional value, bioactivity, various health attributes, mechanism of bioactive components against various diseases, and food applications. The influence of processing processes on the nutritional properties and bioactivity of the fungus is discussed. Potential bioactive components promising health attributes of Trametes versicolor are extensively described. Additionally, several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of polysaccharopeptides (PSP) and Polysaccharide-K (PSK) on the aspects related to immune function and inflammation, also presenting an anticancerous effect. Moreover, PSP and PSK were successfully described to decrease several life-threatening diseases. The potential food applications of Trametes versicolor were detailed to signify the effective utilization of the mushroom in functional food formulation.

In this study, we examined aqueous extracts of the edible mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) and Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom). Proteome analysis was conducted using LC-Triple TOF-MS and showed the expression of 753 proteins by Pleurotus ostreatus, and 432 proteins by Lentinula edodes. Bioactive peptides: Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor, superoxide dismutase, thioredoxin reductase, serine proteinase and lectin, were identified in both mushrooms. The extracts also included promising bioactive compounds including phenolics, flavonoids, vitamins and amino acids. The extracts showed promising antiviral activities, with a selectivity index (SI) of 4.5 for Pleurotus ostreatus against adenovirus (Ad7), and a slight activity for Lentinula edodes against herpes simplex-II (HSV-2). The extracts were not cytotoxic to normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). On the contrary, they showed moderate cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines. Additionally, antioxidant activity was assessed using DPPH radical scavenging, ABTS radical cation scavenging and ORAC assays. The two extracts showed potential antioxidant activities, with the maximum activity seen for Pleurotus ostreatus (IC50 µg/mL) = 39.46 ± 1.27 for DPPH; 11.22 ± 1.81 for ABTS; and 21.40 ± 2.20 for ORAC assays. This study encourages the use of these mushrooms in medicine in the light of their low cytotoxicity on normal PBMCs vis à vis their antiviral, antitumor and antioxidant capabilities.

From time immemorial, mushrooms have been valued by humankind as a culinary wonder and folk medicine in Oriental practice. The last decade has witnessed the overwhelming interest of western research fraternity in pharmaceutical potential of mushrooms. The chief medicinal uses of mushrooms discovered so far are as anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, hypocholesterolemic, anti-tumor, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-allergic, nephroprotective, and anti-microbial agents. The mushrooms credited with success against cancer belong to the genus Phellinus, Pleurotus, Agaricus, Ganoderma, Clitocybe, Antrodia, Trametes, Cordyceps, Xerocomus, Calvatia, Schizophyllum, Flammulina, Suillus, Inonotus, Inocybe, Funlia, Lactarius, Albatrellus, Russula, and Fomes. The anti-cancer compounds play crucial role as reactive oxygen species inducer, mitotic kinase inhibitor, anti-mitotic, angiogenesis inhibitor, topoisomerase inhibitor, leading to apoptosis, and eventually checking cancer proliferation. The present review updates the recent findings on the pharmacologically active compounds, their anti-tumor potential, and underlying mechanism of biological action in order to raise awareness for further investigations to develop cancer therapeutics from mushrooms. The mounting evidences from various research groups across the globe, regarding anti-tumor application of mushroom extracts unarguably make it a fast-track research area worth mass attention.

Mushroom bioactive peptides (MBPs) are bioactive peptides extracted directly or indirectly from edible mushrooms. MBPs are known to have antioxidant, anti-aging, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-hypertensive properties, and facilitate memory and cognitive improvement, antitumour and anti-diabetes activities, and cholesterol reduction. MBPs exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by regulating the MAPK, Keap1-Nrf2-ARE, NF-κB and TNF pathways. In addition, MBPs exert antibacterial, anti-tumour and anti-inflammatory effects by stimulating the proliferation of macrophages. The bioactivities of MBPs are closely related to their molecular weights, charge, amino acid compositions and amino acid sequences. Compared with animal-derived peptides, MBPs are ideal raw materials for healthy and functional products with the advantages of their abundance of resources, safety, low price, and easy-to-achieve large-scale production of valuable nutrients for health maintenance and disease prevention. In this review, the preparation, bioactivities, mechanisms and structure–activity relationships of MBPs were described. The main challenges and prospects of their application in functional products were also discussed. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive perspective of MBPs.

Edible mushrooms have been classified as “next-generation food” due to their high nutritional value\ncoupled with their biological and functional potential. The most extensively studied and reported mushroom\nmacromolecules are polysaccharides. However, macrofungi proteins and peptides are also a representative and\nsignificant bioactive group. Several factors such as species, substrate composition and harvest time significantly\nimpact the mushroom protein content, typically ranging between 19 and 35% on a dry weight basis. Proteins\nwork based on their shape and structure. Numerous extraction methods, including chemical and non-conventional,\nand their implications on protein yield and stability will be discussed. Beyond their biological potential, a\ngreat advantage of mushroom proteins is their uniqueness, as they often differ from animal, vegetable, and microbial\nproteins. According to recently published reports, the most relevant mushroom bioactive proteins and\npeptides include lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins, ubiquitin-like proteins, and proteins possessing enzymatic\nactivity such as ribonucleases laccases, and other enzymes and ergothioneine. These are reported as antioxidant,\nantiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antitumour, antihypercholesterolemic\nor antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory properties, which improved proteins and\npeptides research interest and contributed to the increase of mushroom market value. This review provides an\noverview of the most relevant biochemical and biological properties of the main protein groups in edible mushrooms,\nexplicitly focusing on their biomedical potential. Although mushrooms are a rich source of various proteins,\nmany of these molecules have yet to be identified and characterised. Accordingly, it is crucial to identify\nand characterise new macromolecules of macrofungi origin, which opens an opportunity for further investigation\nto identify new bioactives for food, nutraceutical, or medicinal applications.

The global trend toward carbon neutrality and sustainability calls for collaborative efforts in both the basic and applied research sectors to utilize mushroom mycelia as environmentally friendly and sustainable materials. Fungi, along with animals and plants, are one of the major eukaryotic life forms. They have long been utilized in traditional biotechnology sectors, such as food fermentation, antibiotic production, and industrial enzyme production. Some fungi have also been consumed as major food crops, such as the fruiting bodies of various mushrooms. Recently, new trends have emerged, shifting from traditional applications towards the innovative use of mushroom mycelium as eco-friendly bioresources. This approach has gained attention in the development of alternative meats, mycofabrication of biocomposites, and production of mycelial leather and fabrics. These applications aim to replace animal husbandry and recycle agricultural waste for use in construction and electrical materials. This paper reviews current research trends on industrial applications of mushroom mycelia, covering strain improvements and molecular breeding as well as mycelial products and the production processes. Key findings, practical considerations, and valorization are also discussed.

玉米作为主要的杂粮谷物，营养价值高，维生素、膳食纤维等含量丰富，可以预防多种亚健康疾病，受到市场追捧。但是玉米粉营养结构不均衡、加工性差，限制其应用。有研究表明，微生物发酵技术可以改善谷物的营养成分、大分子物质结构和加工特性。基于此，利用灵芝固态发酵玉米，得到玉米灵芝菌粮（简称菌粮），从营养成分、大分子物质结构和加工特性3个方面对其进行评价。结果显示，与未发酵玉米相比，菌粮中碳水化合物、蛋白质含量分别提高了748%、28.00%，且蛋白质的氨基酸评分提高，而脂肪含量降低了52.56%；维生素C、核黄素和烟酸含量均显著提高（P<0.05），分别提高了56.19%、73.91%和20.27%，且玉米中缺乏的硫胺素在菌粮中被检测到；菌粮中各类淀粉和纤维的含量也发生了显著变化（P<0.05），淀粉、支链淀粉含量分别降低了11.17%、34.70%，直链淀粉含量提高了26.66%，粗纤维、不溶性膳食纤维含量分别降低了21.07%、21.47%，可溶性膳食纤维含量提高了13.57%；菌粮粉粘度降低，水溶性指数提高，吸水性指数和溶胀力降低；此外，与灵芝子实体相比，菌粮中灵芝三萜和灵芝酸含量均显著提高（P<0.05），分别为灵芝子实体的1.68和2.07倍。灵芝固态发酵玉米得到的玉米灵芝菌粮，营养结构更加均衡，功能活性提高，具有更高的营养价值；大分子物质结构发生改变，加工特性得到改善，冲调特性更好。研究结果为食用菌发酵改良谷物特性的研究提供了参考和指导。

There is a need for new protein sources to feed the world in a sustainable way. Converting non-food-grade "woody" side streams into food containing proteins will contribute to this mission. Mushroom forming fungi are unique in their capability to convert lignocellulosic substances into edible biomass containing protein. Especially if substrate mycelium can be used instead of mushrooms, this technology could be a serious contribution to addressing the protein challenge. In this Perspective, we discuss challenges toward production, purification, and market introduction of mushroom mycelium based foods.

Food insecurity and malnutrition are serious problems in many developing countries, including Ethiopia. This situation warrants an urgent need for the diversification of food sources with enhanced productivity. This study was aimed at contributing to the food security in Ethiopia through cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms using sustainable and locally available agro-industrial byproduct-based substrates in parallel with pollution control. Ten substrates were prepared using sugarcane bagasse, filter cake, trash, cotton seed hull and animal waste, namely cow dung and horse and chicken manure. The effect of each substrate (treatment) on the yields, biological efficiency, nutritional composition, and mineral contents of Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom species was evaluated at the Ethiopian Forest Products Innovation Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The results obtained indicate that a significantly higher (p < 0.05) yield and biological efficiency were recorded from the mushroom cultivated on S2 substrate containing a mixture of 80% sugarcane bagasse, 12% cow dung, and 8% cotton seed hull. Moreover, substrate containing sugarcane bagasse mixed with cotton seed hull, cow dung, and chicken manure significantly (p < 0.05) increased the yields and biological efficiency of the mushroom. The content of protein, crude fat, fiber, and carbohydrates of the mushroom cultivated from all the utilized substrates were in the range of 17.30–21.5, 1.77–2.52, 31.03–34.38, and 28.02–39.74%, respectively. The critical macro-elements are abundant in the mushroom in the order of potassium, magnesium, calcium, and sodium. The mushrooms cultivated on all the substrates were rich in essential micro-elements in the order of iron and zinc. It was found that substrate preparation and formulation significantly (p < 0.05) improved the yields, biological efficiency, nutritive values, and mineral contents of the mushroom. The use of these by-products as substrates is sustainable and environmentally friendly and allows the production of mushroom with high nutritional value on a sustainable basis in order to enhance food security in the country.

A large amount of agro-industrial waste is produced worldwide in various agricultural sectors and by different food industries. The disposal and burning of this waste have created major global environmental problems. Agro-industrial waste mainly consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, all of which are collectively defined as lignocellulosic materials. This waste can serve as a suitable substrate in the solid-state fermentation process involving mushrooms. Mushrooms degrade lignocellulosic substrates through lignocellulosic enzyme production and utilize the degraded products to produce their fruiting bodies. Therefore, mushroom cultivation can be considered a prominent biotechnological process for the reduction and valorization of agro-industrial waste. Such waste is generated as a result of the eco-friendly conversion of low-value by-products into new resources that can be used to produce value-added products. Here, we have produced a brief review of the current findings through an overview of recently published literature. This overview has focused on the use of agro-industrial waste as a growth substrate for mushroom cultivation and lignocellulolytic enzyme production.

Functional genes encode various biological functions required for the life activities of organisms. By analyzing the functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi, varieties of edible and medicinal fungi can be improved to enhance their agronomic traits, growth rates, and ability to withstand adversity, thereby increasing yield and quality and promoting industrial development. With the rapid development of functional gene research technology and the publication of many whole-genome sequences of edible and medicinal fungi, genes related to important biological traits have been mined, located, and functionally analyzed. This paper summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different functional gene research techniques and application examples for edible and medicinal fungi; systematically reviews the research progress of functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi in biological processes such as mating type, mycelium and fruit growth and development, substrate utilization and nutrient transport, environmental response, and the synthesis and regulation of important active substances; and proposes future research directions for functional gene research for edible and medicinal fungi. The overall aim of this study was to provide a valuable reference for further promoting the molecular breeding of edible and medicinal fungi with high yield and quality and to promote the wide application of edible and medicinal fungi products in food, medicine, and industry.

The control and monitoring of the environmental conditions in mushroom cultivation has been a challenge in the mushroom industry. Currently, research has been conducted to implement successful remote environmental monitoring, or, in some cases, remote environmental control, yet there is not yet a combination of both these systems providing live stream images or video. As a result, this research aimed to design and develop an Internet of things (IoT)-based environmental control and monitoring system for mushroom cultivation, whereby the growth conditions of the mushrooms, such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, and soil moisture level, are remotely monitored and controlled through a mobile and web application. Users would be able to visualize the growth of the mushroom remotely by video and images through the Internet. The respective sensors are implemented into the mushroom cultivation process and connected to the NodeMCU microcontroller, which collects and transfers the data to the cloud server, enabling remote access at any time through the end device with internet connection. The control algorithm regulates the equipment within the cultivational chamber autonomously, based on feedback from the sensors, in order to retain the optimum environment for the cultivation of mushrooms. The sensors were tested and compared with manual readings to ensure their accuracy. The implementation of IoT toward mushroom cultivation would greatly contribute to the advancement of the current mushroom industry which still applies the traditional cultivation approach.

From the preparation of bread, cheese, beer, and condiments to vegetarian meat products, fungi play a leading role in the food fermentation industry. With the shortage of global protein resources and the decrease in cultivated land, fungal protein has received much attention for its sustainability. Fungi are high in protein, rich in amino acids, low in fat, and almost cholesterol-free. These properties mean they could be used as a promising supplement for animal and plant proteins. The selection of strains and the fermentation process dominate the flavor and quality of fungal-protein-based products. In terms of function, fungal proteins exhibit better digestive properties, can regulate blood lipid and cholesterol levels, improve immunity, and promote gut health. However, consumer acceptance of fungal proteins is low due to their flavor and safety. Thus, this review puts forward prospects in terms of these issues.

Mycoprotein is a protein-rich fungal-derived sustainable food source that was first discovered in the early 1960's. Since then, a sizeable body of research has investigated the health benefits of mycelium protein. Given this, the present publication aims to systematically review the effects of mycoprotein on human health. A literature search of human studies was conducted using PubMed Central, ClinicalTrials.Gov, Google Scholar and a manual search. Sixteen controlled trials, totaling 432 participants were included – of these 5 studies reported total cholesterol, 5 reported on energy intake, 7 on insulin levels, 8 on glucose levels and 4 studied protein response. Risk of bias showed that 7 studies were good quality although heterogeneity was apparent between studies. Results showed that acute mycoprotein ingestion was associated with reduced total cholesterol levels, particularly amongst those with hyperlipidemia. Evidence was less conclusive for effects on blood glucose and insulin levels. Mycoprotein also appears to be a promising bioavailable source of essential amino acids that could induce muscle protein synthesis. Overall, given growing interest in sustainable proteins and accruing health evidence for mycoprotein, firmer embedment with food-based dietary guidelines is now worthy of consideration.

Herein, it was reported and compared the chemical composition and nutritional value of the most consumed species as fresh cultivated mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus (white and brown mushrooms), Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom), Pleurotus eryngii (King oyster mushroom), Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) and Flammulina velutipes (Golden needle mushroom). Shiitake revealed the highest levels of macronutrients, unless proteins, as also the highest sugars, tocopherols and PUFA levels, and the lowest SFA content. White and brown mushrooms showed similar macronutrients composition, as also similar values of total sugars, MUFA, PUFA and total tocopherols. Oyster and king oyster mushrooms gave the highest MUFA contents with similar contents in PUFA, MUFA and SFA in both samples. They also revealed similar moisture, ash, carbohydrates and energy values. This study contributes to the elaboration of nutritional databases of the most consumed fungi species worldwide, allowing comparison between them. Moreover it was reported that cultivated and the wild samples of the same species have different chemical composition, including sugars, fatty acids and tocopherols profiles.Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The mushroom Agaricus bisporus secretes biologically active compounds and proteins with benefits for human health. Most reported proteins from A. bisporus are tyrosinases and lectins. Lectins are of therapeutic or pharmaceutical interest. To date, only limited information is available on A. bisporus lectins and lectin-like proteins. No therapeutic products derived from A. bisporus lectin (ABL) are available on the market despite its extensive exploration. Recently, A. bisporus mannose-binding protein (Abmb) was discovered. Its discovery enriches the information and increases the interest in proteins with therapeutic potential from this mushroom. Furthermore, the A. bisporus genome reveals the possible occurrence of other lectins in this mushroom that may also have therapeutic potential. Most of these putative lectins belong to the same lectin groups as ABL and Abmb. Their relationship is discussed. Particular attention is addressed to ABL and Abmb, which have been explored for their potential in medicinal or pharmaceutical applications. ABL and Abmb have anti-proliferative activities toward cancer cells and a stimulatory effect on the immune system. Possible scenarios for their use in therapy and modification are also presented.

Although mushrooms have been exploited since ancient times because of their particular taste and therapeutic properties, the interest in edible species as a source of ingredients and bioactive compounds is recent. Their valuable nutritional contents in protein, dietary fiber and bioactive compounds make them ideal candidates for use in foods in efforts to improve their nutritional profiles. This trend is in line with the consumer’s growing demand for more plant-based foods. The present review paper explores different studies focused on the use of common edible mushrooms as an ingredient and additive replacer by using them in fresh, dried, or even extract forms, as meat, fat, flour, salt, phosphates, and antioxidant replacers. The replacement of meat, fat, flour, and salt by mushrooms from commercial species has been successful despite sensorial and textural parameters can be affected. Moderate concentrations of mushrooms, especially in powder form, should be considered, particularly in non-familiarized consumers. In the case of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, results are variable, and more studies are necessary to determine the chemical aspects involved.

Edible and medicinal fungi, a group of eukaryotic organisms with numerous varieties, including Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Cordyceps sinensis, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Grifola frondosa, have been demonstrated to possess a board range of pharmaceutical properties, including anti-virus, anti-inflammation, and neuroprotection. Moreover, edible and medicinal fungi have been traditionally consumed as food to provide multiple nutrients and as drugs owing to having the activities of invigorating blood circulation, reinforcing the healthy qi, clearing away heat, and eliminating stasis for thousands of years in China. Malignant tumors, well-known as the second leading cause of death globally, accounted for nearly 10 million deaths in 2020. Thus, in-depth exploration of strategies to prevent and treat cancer is extremely urgent. A variety of studies have reported that the main bioactive components of edible and medicinal fungi, mainly polysaccharides and triterpenoids, exhibit diverse anticancer activities via multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of cell proliferation and metastasis, induction of apoptosis and autophagy, reversing multidrug resistance, and regulation of immune responses, thus suggesting their substantial potential in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Our review summarizes the research progress on the anticancer properties of edible and medicinal fungi and the underlying molecular mechanism, which may offer a better understanding of this field. Additionally, few studies have reported the safety and efficacy of extracts from edible and medicinal fungi, which may limit their clinical application. In summary, there is a need to continue to explore the use of those extracts and to further validate their safety and efficacy.

Mushrooms have been valued as food and health supplements by humans for centuries. They are rich in dietary fiber, essential amino acids, minerals, and many bioactive compounds, especially those related to human immune system functions. Mushrooms contain diverse immunoregulatory compounds such as terpenes and terpenoids, lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) and polysaccharides. The distributions of these compounds differ among mushroom species and their potent immune modulation activities vary depending on their core structures and fraction composition chemical modifications. Here we review the current status of clinical studies on immunomodulatory activities of mushrooms and mushroom products. The potential mechanisms for their activities both in vitro and in vivo were summarized. We describe the approaches that have been used in the development and application of bioactive compounds extracted from mushrooms. These developments have led to the commercialization of a large number of mushroom products. Finally, we discuss the problems in pharmacological applications of mushrooms and mushroom products and highlight a few areas that should be improved before immunomodulatory compounds from mushrooms can be widely used as therapeutic agents.

In the present work, a novel cordycepic pigment was successfully isolated and identified from Cordyceps militaris, as well as named as cordycepene (CHNO), according to the long unsaturated conjugated polyene structural characteristic. Cordycepene is sensitive to light, high temperature (≥ 60 °C), and acidic condition (pH ≤ 3), but possesses high stability against metal ions, and under alkaline and neutral conditions. Cordycepene shows a comparable DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical-scavenging activity at higher concentration (≥ 2 mg/mL) to vitamin C. Cordycepene promotes the growth of HSF (human skin fibroblast cell) after incubation for 72 h, and has an ability to repair the UV light-treated HSF cells. In addition, cordycepene increases the antioxidant activity (SOD, superoxide dismutase; GSH-Px, glutathione peroxidase; CAT, catalase) and decreases MDA (malondialdehyde) level, indicating that cordycepene inhibits the photochemical senescence of HSF by enhancing the antioxidant defense system. The discovery of cordycepene can provide a basis for research on light incubation and the accumulation of yellow pigment (carotenoids) from C. militaris.

Biorational insecticides (for instance, avermectins, spinosins, azadirachtin, and afidopyropen) of natural origin are increasingly being used in agriculture. The review considers the chemical ecology approach for the search for new compounds with insecticidal properties (entomotoxic, antifeedant, and hormonal) produced by fungi of various ecological groups (entomopathogens, soil saprotrophs, endophytes, phytopathogens, and mushrooms). The literature survey revealed that insecticidal metabolites of entomopathogenic fungi have not been sufficiently studied, and most of the well-characterized compounds show moderate insecticidal activity. The greatest number of substances with insecticidal properties was found to be produced by soil fungi, mainly from the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Metabolites with insecticidal and antifeedant properties were also found in endophytic and phytopathogenic fungi. It was noted that insect pests of stored products are mostly low sensitive to mycotoxins. Mushrooms were found to be promising producers of antifeedant compounds as well as insecticidal proteins. The expansion of the number of substances with insecticidal properties detected in prospective fungal species is possible by mining fungal genomes for secondary metabolite gene clusters and secreted proteins with their subsequent activation by various methods. The efficacy of these studies can be increased with high-throughput techniques of extraction of fungal metabolites and their analysis by various methods of chromatography and mass spectrometry.